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DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
GIVE INFORMATION OR DESCRIBE THE SAMPLE
VARIANCE
STANDARD DEVIATION
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
INFERENCES OF THE POPULATION FROM MEAN AND VARIANCE
CHI-SQUARE TEST
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
TOOLS FOR DATA INTERPRETATION
Compare the means relative to the degree of variation among scores in each group to determine the probability that the calculated differences between the means reflect real differences between subject groups and not chance occurrences
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
TOOLS FOR DATA INTERPRETATION
Difference between two means is significant at 0.05 level of significance implies a probability of less than 5 out of 100 that the difference is due to chance
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
WHAT IS BEING DESCRIBED
Relationship Contingency coefficient Rank order correlation coef. Pearson product moment correlation
s =
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
DEPEND ON HYPOTHESES AND SCALE OF VARIABLE
PARAMETRIC TESTS STATISTICAL TEST t - test HYPOTHESIS TESTED About a single mean Difference between 2 means
One-way ANOVA
Two-way ANOVA
Two or more population means are equal single independent variable Two or more population means are equal two independent variables
PARAMETRIC TEST
EMPLOY INTERVAL MEASUREMENT OF THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
DEPEND ON HYPOTHESES AND SCALE OF VARIABLE
NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS STATISTICAL TEST Chi-square test HYPOTHESIS TESTED Two variables are independent Medians of two or more population are equal No difference in the scores from two population
Mann-Whitney U-test
NON-PARAMETRIC TEST
BASED ON NOMINAL OR ORDINAL MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
Require neither normal distributions or equal group variances Useful for large samples that dont satisfy assumptions for parametric techniques For very small samples and for studies involving ordinal measuring devices
Transform ordinal variable into nominal and use C-1, or; Transform the interval variable into ordinal and use B-2, or; Transform both variables into nominal and use C-3.
Multiple Correlation
ROW 2
Transform ordinal variable into nominal and use C-1, or; Transform the interval variable into ordinal and use B-2, or; Transform the interval variable into nominal and use C-2.
Sign Test, Median Test, U-Test, Kruskal-Wallis Phi Coeff. , Fisher Exact Test, Chi-Square -
Sign Test, Median Test, U-Test, Kruskal-Wallis Friedmans Two-Way Analysis of Variance COLUMN B
More Than 1
Analysis of Variance
COLUMN A
COLUMN C
t - test
Analysis of variance
Nominal independent variable and ordinal dependent variable with two conditions or levels More than two conditions or more than one independent variable
Chi-square statistic
Spearman rank-order Two ordinal variables correlation Pearson product Two interval variables moment correlation Mann-Whitney U-test Nominal independent variable and ordinal dependent variable
t Test Statistic
TEST WHETHER THE MEANS OF THE TWO GROUPS ARE SIMILAR
Determine the probability that the difference between the two means reflects a real difference between the groups of subjects rather than a chance variation in data
X1 X2 ----------------------------------------------(N1 1)S12 + (N2 1)S22 x N1 + N2 N1 + N2 1 N1 N 2
t Test Worksheet
GROUP N = I II X = X2 = X =
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Compute group variances N1X12 (X1)2 N2X22 (X2)2 S12 = --------------------------: S22 = --------------------------N1(N1 1) N2(N2 1) Calculate t-value (N1 1) S12 + (N2 1) S22 ---------------------------------- = _______ N1 + N2 2 (N1 + N2)/N1N2 = _______ (Step 1 x Step 2) = _______ (Step 3)1/2 = _______ X1 X2 = _______ t = Step 5/Step 4 = ________ df = N1 + N2 2 = ________ Look up t-value in Table for Critical Values of t = ___; p = 0.05
t Test Worksheet
GROUP I Response Categories Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree X1 5 4 3 2 f 5 8 12 3 fX1 25 32 36 6 fX12 125 128 108 12 X2 5 4 3 2 GROUP II f 7 10 6 3 fX2 35 40 18 6 fX22 175 160 54 12
Strongly disagree
Total
2
30 N1
2
101 X1
2
375 X12
4
30 N2
4
103 X2
4
405 X22
t Test Worksheet
GROUP N = I
30 101 375 3.37
II
30 103 405 3.43
X = X2 = X =
Compute group variances N1X12 (X1)2 N2X22 (X2)2 S12 = --------------------------: S22 = --------------------------N1(N1 1) N2(N2 1) S12 = 1.21 S22 = 1.77 Calculate t-value (N1 1) S12 + (N2 1) S22 ---------------------------------- = 1.49 N1 + N2 2 2. (N1 + N2)/N1N2 = 0.07 3. (Step 1 x Step 2) = 0.104 4. (Step 3)1/2 = 0.32 5. X1 X2 = 0.06 6. t = Step 5/Step 4 = 0.1875 df = N1 + N2 2 = 58 Look up t-value in Table for Critical Values of t = 2.00 p = 0.05
Chi-Square Statistic
MOST WIDELY USED NON-PARAMETRIC TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE
Useful for nominal data but can also be used for higher scales Apply to cases where persons, events or objects are grouped together into two or more nominal categories such as yes-no, favor-undecided-against, or class A, B, C, D Calculated with actual counts
Chi-Square Statistic
MOST WIDELY USED NON-PARAMETRIC TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE
Applied to test of significance between the observed distribution of data among categories and expected distribution Examine questions of relationship Used in one-sample analysis, two independent samples, or k-independent samples
Chi-Square Statistic
ONE-SAMPLE CASE ANALYSIS
FORMULA:
2 (O E ) i i k = ------------i=1 Ei
Chi-Square Statistic
ONE-SAMPLE CASE ANALYSIS
A survey of senior officers interest in pursuing the OSEC was conducted. The researcher had interviewed 200 officers and learned of their intentions to join the OSEC. Responses were classified into four categories, as shown: PURPOSE Increase knowledge Need for promotion Relaxation from job Save money TOTAL INTEND TO PURSUE OSEC 16 13 16 15 60 NO. INTERVIEWED 90 40 40 30 200
Chi-Square Statistic
ONE-SAMPLE CASE ANALYSIS
Purpose Join OSEC 16 No. Interviewed 90 Percent (N/200) 45 Expected Frequency (% x 60) 27
Knowledge
Null hypothesis: The proportion of the population who intend to join the OSEC is independent of the purpose. Calculate the expected distribution by determining that proportion of the 200 respondents were in each group. Apply the proportion to the number who intend to join the OSEC. Calculate chi-square: x2 = 9.89 df = k 1 = 4 -1 = 3
Relaxation
Promotion Save
13
16 15 60
40
40 30 200
20
20 15 100
12
12 9 60
(O - E)2 X2 = ---------------------E
(1627)2 (13-12)2 (16-12)2 (15-9)2 X2 = ----------- + ----------- + ----------- + ---------27 12 12 9
D. Obtain the critical test value for x2 considering df = 3; p = 0.05 x2 = 7.82 Decision: Reject hypothesis
Chi-Square Statistic
TWO-SAMPLE CASE ANALYSIS
FORMULA:
2 (O E ) i i k = ------------i=1 Ei
Appropriate for situation in which a test for differences between samples is required.
Chi-Square Statistic
TWO-SAMPLE CASE ANALYSIS
An officer has become interested in whether drinking alcohol has some deleterious effects on police behavior. He wonder whether drinking alcohol triggers police misdemeanors.
YES 12 9 13
NO 4 6 22
TOTAL
34
32
Chi-Square Statistic
TWO SAMPLE CASE ANALYSIS
Alcohol Drinker Heavy Moderate Non-drinker Column Total YES 12 9 13 34 NO 4 6 22 32 Row Total 16 15 35 66
Null hypothesis: There is no difference in police misdemeanor occurrences between alcohol drinker and nondrinker. Calculate the expected observations in each cell by multiplying the two marginal totals common to a particular cell and dividing this product by the total observations. Calculate chi-square: x2 = 6.86 df = (r 1)(c 1) = (3-1)(2-1) = 2 D. Obtain the critical test value for x2 considering df = 2; p = 0.05 x2 = 5.99 Decision: Reject hypothesis
YES 8.24
NO 7.76
Row Total 16
Moderate
Non-drinker Column Total
(128.24)2 (9-7.73)2
7.73
18.03 34
7.27
16.97 32
15
35 66
(13-18.03)2
X2 = ------------ + ----------- + --------------- + ----------- + ---------- + -------------8.24 7.73 18.03 7.76 7.27 16.97
Chi-Square Statistic
SAMPLE CASE ANALYSIS A researcher is interested in student attitude toward compulsory attendance to OSEC recreational games. A random sample of students is drawn from each of the four classes of the National Police College. The students in the sample are then asked to respond whether they strongly agree, agree or disagree to compulsory attendance
CLASS
OSEC 60
STRONGLY AGREE
12
AGREE
48
DISAGREE
20
TOTAL
80
OSEC 61
OSEC 62 OSEC 63 TOTAL
7
6 5 30
20
19 3 90
33
35 32 120
60
60 40 240
Chi-Square Statistic
SAMPLE CASE ANALYSIS
CLASS O-60 O-61 O-62 O-63 TOTAL SD 12 7 6 5 30 A 48 20 19 3 90 D 20 33 35 32 120 TOTAL 80 60 60 40 240
Null Hypothesis: The four class populations do not differ in their attitude toward compulsory attendance to OSEC recreational games.
x2 = 12.59
p = 0.05 Conclusion: Class and attitude toward compulsory attendance to OSEC recreational games are related (not independent) in the student population. The null hypothesis is rejected.
Chi-Square Statistic
SAMPLE CASE ANALYSIS
To study whether a relationship may exist between level of investigative competence and the amount of education received by the investigators.
Incompetent 12 28 51 91
Chi-Square Statistic
SAMPLE CASE ANALYSIS
EDUC. HS BS MS TOTAL HC 75 64 28 167 BC 54 106 82 242 I 12 28 51 91 TOTAL 141 198 161 500
Determine the value of the expected outcome, E = (kr)/N Compute chi-square value: x2 = 59.37 df = (r 1)(c 1) = 4
x2 = 9.49
p = 0.05
Chi-Square Statistic
SAMPLE CASE ANALYSIS
Decide whether the four groups really differ in opinion concerning the components of a program toward crime prevention.
Police 83 37 120
LGU 67 33 100
Civilian 95 55 150
Chi-Square Statistic
SAMPLE CASE ANALYSIS
Program Foot patrol Motorized patrol TOTAL P 83 37 120 L 67 33 100 N 114 86 200 C 95 55 150 TOTAL 359 211 570
Determine the value of the expected outcome, E = (kr)/N Compute chi-square value: x2 = 5.55 df = (r 1)(c 1) = 4
x2 = 7.82
p = 0.05