HISTORY OF WELDING OVER 67 TYPED GROUPED UNDER SEVEN MAIN HEADINGS AS FOLLOWS:-

Welding Technique.
Striking the Arc 1. Tap method 2. Scratch method

Weaving Technique.

METHODS OF WEAVING IN FLAT POSITION.

METHODS OF WEAVING FOR HORIZONTAL WELD BEADS.

METHODS OF WEAVING FOR VERTICAL UPWARDS WELD BEADS.

METHODS OF WEAVING IN OVERHEAD POSITION.

ANY JOB WORTH DOING IS WORTH DOING WELL.

The process has to depend on,

Welding consumables Joint design Base metal Welding procedure Operators skill Welding equipment

FAULTS IN FUSION WELDING

If our ancient monuments can stand firm for centuries with no trace of damage. Why are modern constructions built with benefit of high technology so fragile ? The seeds of the untimely demise of a structure are sown even before it starts taking shape. Men, materials methods of working and the management practice all are equally responsible for the poor state of affairs.

WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Discontinuities is described as hindrance in a components parts performance. WELD IMPERFECTIONS Can be categories into several groups, Group, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Cracks Cavities Solid inclusions Lack of fusion and penetration Imperfect shape Miscellaneous imperfection

Inspections & testing of welds.

Inspection is made in 3 stages :a) Before welding. b) During welding. c) After welding Inspection Before welding * Proper facility exist for storage / drying of electrodes. * Materials to be of welded is of weldable quality. * Mill scale, oil, grease, paint & etc. Inspection During welding * Studying the sequence of weld deposits. * Examining whether each weld is cleaned adequately before making the next run in multi run welding. Inspection After welding * Visual inspection of weld after execution * Surface defects in and around.

Defects in welding External Defects.

a) Incorrect Profile b) Cracks c) Crater d) Spatter e) Edge of plate metal off f) Surface porosity g) Concavity / Convexity

Defects in welding Internal Defects.

a) Blow Holes b) Slag Inclusion c) Cracks d) Porosity e) Lack of Penetration. f) Lack of Fusion.

DEFECTS DUE TO FAULTY TECHNIQUE

1. UNDERCUT : THIS REDUCTION in cross section weakens the joint and creates a slag trap.

* High amperage * Arc too long * Angle of electrode too inclined to joint face * Joint preparation does not allow correct electrode angle * Electrode too large for joint

* Insufficient depositing time at edge of weave.

* Reduce amperage.
* Keep shorter arc. * Electrode should not be inclined less than 45 deg. To vertical face. * Allow more room in joint for manipulation of electrode. * Use smaller gauge electrode. * Pause for a moment at edge of weave to allow build-up. ( Weaving is more likely to produce undercut than a straight run. Therefore, where possible, use straight runs. )

2. SLAG INCLUSIONS : Non-metallic particles trapped in the weld metal are called slag inclusions. They may seriously reduce the strength of the welded joint.

TYPICAL WELD DEFECTS.

3. INCOMPLETE PENETRATION :
A gap left by failure of the weld metal to fill the root.
Cause * Amps. Too low * Electrode too large for joint * Insufficient gap * Angle of electrode Remedy * Increase current * Use smaller electrode. * Allow wider gap * If too inclined, does not give penetration. Keep nearer to right angle to weld axis. * Use correct build-up sequence

* Incorrect sequence

4. LACK OF FUSION :

Portions of the run do not fuse to the surface of the metal or edge of the joint.

: In overcoming these fault, it is often an advantage if the job can be positioned to allow welding to be done in the downhand position. Cause Remedy
* Small electrodes used on heavy cold plate. * Amperage too low * Wrong electrode angle
* Speed of travel * Scale or dirt on joint surface

Note

* Use larger electrodes ( preheat may be desirable) * Increase current. * Adjust angle so the arc is directed more into parent metal. * If too high, does not allow time for proper fusion. * Clean surface before welding.

STEP BACK SEQUENCE

BALANCED SEQUENCE

Straight Polarity : Arrangement of D.C. arc welding leads wherein the

work is the positive pole and the electrode is the negative pole of the welding arc.

Tack Weld : Small weld made to hold parts in proper alignment until
final welds are made. Throat Thickness : The minimum thickness of weld metal in : a) Fillet weld, measured along a line passing through the root. b) Close square butt joint, measured in the plane of abutting faces.

c) Open square butt weld, measured in centre of original gap parallel

to fusion faces. Effective Throat thickness : Dimension arbitrarily adopted a throat

thickness for design purposes.

FIGURE .1

FIGURE .2

FIGURE .3

Open-circuit voltage : Voltage between terminals of power source when no current is flowing. Overlap : Protrusion of weld metal beyond bond at toe of weld. Parent Metal : Same as basis metal. Pass : A single welding run along a joint or weld deposit. The result of a pass is a weld bead. Peening : The mechanical working of metals by relatively light hammering. Penetration : The depth a weld extends into a joint from basis metal surface. Porosity : Gas pockets or voids in metal. Post-heating : Application of heat to the weldment after welding is completed.

Preheating : Application of heat to the basis metal before welding commences.

Reinforcement of Weld : Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the toes of a weld.

PENETRATION

Reverse Polarity : Arrangement of D.C. arc welding leads wherein the work is the negative pole and the electrode is the positive pole of the welding arc. Root of weld : The zone on the side of the first run farthest from the welder.

DEEP PENETRATION

Toe : Boundary between weld face and parent metal or between weld faces. Underbead or hard zone crack : Crack in the heat-affected zone which may or may not extend to surface of basis metal. Undercut : A groove melted in the base metal adjacent to the toe of a weld, and left unfilled by weld metal. Weave Bead : Weld bead made with slow oscillating motion of the electrode. Welding Sequence : The order of making welds in a weldment. Work Lead : Conductor between source of current and work or work table. Work Piece : The job or components being welded.

BUTT WELD

H.V. FILLET WELD

BUILD-UP SEQUENCE FOR H.V. FILLET

WELD DEFECTS IN WELDING.

STRAY FLASH
Defects caused by flashing on the parent material due to loose connection in the earthing or parent material. Possible changes are stress concentration point, which could led to big disaster. Strike the arc in the groove on the area to be welded. Earthing clamp should be bolted at the machine and properly clamped on the parent material. SLAG INCLUSION * Impurity of weld metal. * Due to low current. * Wrong polarity. * Slag not cleaned properly in multi run technique. * Wrong weaving pattern. * Grease, Paint & Rust.

POROSITY Defects caused due :* Damp electrodes. * Paint, Mill scale, Rust. More sulfur & carbon in parent material or electrode. * Wrong polarity * 3 types of polarity i) Scattered ii) Cluster or honey comb iii) Linear UNDER CUTTING

Welders defects caused by welder

* High current * Wrong weaving pattern * Wrong polarity * Slag not cleaned properly in multi run technique.

CRACKS * Damp electrodes * Carbon more in parent material or electrode * Wrong polarity * 2 types of cracks i) Hot Crack * High carbon, high sulfur in parent material. * High restrain. * Wrong type of electrode. ii) Cold Crack * Hydrogen level more in electrode. * Job not preheated. Any plate mote than 25 mm the job should be preheated. * Interpass temperature should be maintained or else this can cause hydrogen induced crack or delayed cracking.

DISTORTION

* Natural due to heat (Expansion & contraction) * Can be controlled by following techniques. i) Sequence welding. ii) Back step welding for thin plates. iii) Presetting iv) Controlled heat input. v) Minimize the number of runs using bigger diameter electrode. vi) Bigger size filled in down hand & horizontal positions. OVERLAP
* Uneven surface & plate thickness. * Wrong weaving pattern, should use stringer beads. * Weaving should not be mote than 3 times the of electrode. * Final capping bead not more than 1.6 mm

REDUCTION OF DISTORTION BY PREHEATING

EXAMPLES OF DISTORTION

FIGURE .1.

FIGURE .2.

FIGURE .3.

FIGURE .4.

FIGURE .5.

THE CAUSE OF DISTORTION

SKETCH EXAGGERATED FOR CLARITY

TRANSVERSE ANGULAR DISTORTION

PRINCIPLE OF PRESETTING

Defects may be defected by destructive and non destructive tests. DESTRUCTIVE TEST i) Tensile Test ii) Bending Test iii) Impact test iv) Etching Test NON DESTRUCTIVE TEST i) Radiography Test ii) Magnetic Particle Test iii) Ultrasonic Test iv) D.P. Test v) Fluorescent Flow Detection Method.

FLAT

HORIZONTAL

FLAT

VERTICAL

VERTICAL

OVERHEAD

OVERHEAD

HORIZONTAL

WELDING POSITIONS FOR BUTT AND FILLET WELDS

STANDARD SYMBOLS FOR DESIGNATING WELDING POSITIONS