Aircraft Performance

Module 10
Where are we?

1 : Introduction to aircraft performance, atmosphere

2 : Aerodynamics, air data measurements
3 : Weights / CG, engine performance, level flight
4 : Turning flight, flight envelope
5 : Climb and descent performance
6 : Cruise and endurance
7 : Payload-range, cost index
8 : Take-off performance
9 : Take-off performance
10 : Enroute and landing performance
11 : Wet and contaminated runways
12 : Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design

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Enroute and landing performance
Enroute performance

 Introduction

 OEI enroute climb gradient

 OEI enroute climb ceiling

 Driftdown

 Terrain clearance requirements

 Return, Continue or Divert

 ETOPS

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Enroute and landing performance
Enroute - Introduction

 This section addresses the main performance considerations in the

event of a system failure during cruise

• Mostly addressing an engine failure but other failures such as loss

of pressurization may also have to be considered

 A number of performance calculations may have to be carried out

during the flight preparation phase to ensure safe continuation of the
flight after a failure during cruise

• OEI enroute climb ceiling

• Driftdown flight path
• Decision points: return, continue or divert

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Enroute and landing performance
 Enroute – OEI enroute climb gradient
 In the event of an engine failure after take-off and before landing, the
aircraft will be flown in the OEI enroute climb configuration
• Clean (Flaps and slats retracted)
• One engine at MCT
• One engine inoperative
• Airspeed is equal to Venr :
- Venr must not be less than 1.18 Vsr
- Venr must provide a minimum maneuvering margin of 40 degree bank
prior to stall warning or buffet
- Normally Venr is selected by the manufacturer so as to provide best
climb gradient

 The enroute climb gradient is presented in the AFM

 The gross enroute climb gradient represents actual climb performance
 The net enroute climb gradient is obtained by subtracting 1.1 % from the
gross gradient (for a two engine aircraft)

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Enroute and landing performance
 Enroute – OEI enroute climb ceiling
 The OEI enroute climb ceiling is the pressure altitude at which the
airplane can maintain a net enroute climb gradient of 0 %

 Critical case is with anti-ice on (lower thrust level) and ice accumulated
on unprotected surfaces

 It is highly desirable to have an OEI enroute climb ceiling of at least

15,000 ft so to ensure obstacle clearance after an engine failure during
cruise in mountainous areas such as the alps for example

• Higher OEI enroute climb ceiling will be required in the Himalayas

• Typically 21,000 – 25,000 ft
• Very difficult to achieve with a two-engine aircraft
• Four engine aircraft have an advantage in this case

 Typical OEI enroute climb ceiling chart is shown on the next slide

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Enroute and landing performance
Enroute – OEI enroute climb ceiling (Cont’d)

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Enroute and landing performance
 Enroute – Driftdown
 Following an engine failure during cruise, the so-called driftdown
procedure must be followed to minimize loss of range and maximize the
time to descend to the OEI climb ceiling

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Enroute and landing performance
 Enroute – Terrain clearance requirements
 The enroute terrain clearance requirements in FAR 121.191 for one
engine inoperative are:

A) The net flight path shall have a positive slope 1500 ft above airport
intended for landing

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Enroute and landing performance
 Enroute – Terrain clearance requirements (Cont’d)
Compliance with B) or C) below:

Net flight path slope shall be

B) positive at an altitude of at
least 1,000 ft above all
terrain within 5 statute miles
(4.34 nm) on either side of
the intended track, or

The net flight path clearing

C) all terrain and obstacles by
at least 2,000 ft within 5
statute miles (4.34 nm) on
either side of the intended
track

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Enroute and landing performance
 Enroute – Return, Continue or Divert
 A pilot may be faced with the decision to continue, turn back, or divert if an
emergency such as an engine failure arises during the flight

 Decision points A and B can be defined based on (1) fuel required to return
or continue and / or (2) obstacles that must be cleared

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Enroute and landing performance
Enroute – Return, Continue or Divert (Cont’d)

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Enroute and landing performance
 Enroute – ETOPS
 Basic aircraft operations have traditionally been predicated on capability to
reach a suitable alternate airport within 60 minutes in the event of an
emergency

• This requirement does not allow flight over water for long periods of time
and forces the use of a trajectory that is relatively close to the shore line
• Not optimum for planning of long range missions

 With the increased reliability of aircraft systems, it is possible to obtain

airworthiness and operational approval for more than 60 minutes for two
engine aircraft

• Referred to as Extended Twin-engine Operations (ETOPS)

• The 60-minute requirement can be extended up to 180 minutes with
appropriate system reliability and redundancy (Ref. FAA Advisory Circular
120-42A on ETOPS)
• Allows the use of direct (optimum) flight trajectories during long range
missions over water

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Enroute and landing performance
 Enroute – ETOPS (Cont’d)

60 minutes

Light blue indicates

acceptable flight zones

120 minutes

180 minutes

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Enroute and landing performance
 Landing
 Definition of landing distance
 Landing speed
 Calculation of landing distance
 Main factors affecting
performance
 Landing field length
 Performance-limited landing
weight
 Landing WAT limits
 Brake energy considerations

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Enroute and landing performance
Landing – Definition of landing distance

 The actual landing distance extends from the point where the
aircraft is 50 ft above the runway to the point where the aircraft
has reached a full stop on the runway

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Enroute and landing performance
Landing – Definition of landing distance (Cont’d)

 Segment A – Air distance

• Transition from a stabilized approach at a speed of VREF on a 3

degree glideslope to the touchdown point

• Thrust may be reduced to idle at or after the 50 ft point

• Pilot applies longitudinal control to reduce the rate of descent

before the touchdown point (referred to as the landing flare)

• Touchdown is defined as the time when the wheels first touch

the ground

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Enroute and landing performance
 Landing – Definition of landing distance (Cont’d)

 Segment B – Delay distance from VTD to VFB

• Transition from the touchdown point to the full braking configuration

• No performance credit for reverse thrust on dry or wet runways
• After touchdown, brakes are applied and GLDs are extended as rapidly
as possibly (GLD extension may be automatic)
• At VFB, the aircraft is in the full braking configuration with brakes fully
applied and GLDs fully extended
• Brakes may be applied before nosewheel touchdown but in a manner
such that nosewheel does not hit the runway at a vertical speed
exceeding than 8 ft/sec

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Enroute and landing performance
 Landing – Definition of landing distance (Cont’d)

 Segment C – Braking distance from VFB to full stop

• From VFB to a full stop

• Maximum anti-skid braking is used

• Dry runway conditions are assumed

• GLDs are fully extended

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Enroute and landing performance
 Landing – Landing speed
 The landing approach speed VREF is determined by the aircraft
manufacturer based on the following considerations

• VREF is not less than 1.23 Vsr and not less than VMCL (as per FAR/JAR
25.125)
- VMCL is the minimum control speed in the landing configuration, i.e. the
minimum speed at which the aircraft can be controlled in the landing
configuration with one engine failed and the other engine at maximum
go-around thrust
• VREF is the minimum speed that provides acceptable handling
characteristics during a stabilized landing approach
• A minimum maneuvering margin of 40 degree bank prior to stall warning
is available at VREF
-
 It is highly desirable to have a VREF speed not greater than 140 KIAS at
MLW in order to ensure that the aircraft can operate in the class C
approach category

• Higher VREF would result in restrictions at some airports

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Enroute and landing performance
Landing – Calculation of landing distance
 Landing distance (or actual landing distance ALD) is the sum of
segments A, B and C

 Typically calculated for ISA conditions and zero runway slope

(as per FAR/JAR 25.125)

 Segment A – Air distance

• Air distance = air time * average ground speed

• Most aircraft manufacturers use the “parametric method” in
order to calculate air distance
• A certified air distance of approximately 1,000 ft is is typical for
transport category airplanes
• Typical speed at touchdown when an “aggressive” landing is
carried out is approximately 0.98 VREF (speed decay = 2 %
between 50 ft and touchdown)

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Enroute and landing performance
 Landing – Calculation of landing distance (Cont’d)
 Description of the parametric method

• Methodology is defined in FAA Advisory Circular (AC) 25-7A

• A minimum of 40 “normal” landings are carried out with glideslope at 50 ft

varying from 2.5 to 3.5 degrees and with rate of descent at touchdown
varying from 2 to 6 ft/sec

• Parametric equations are determined from the the results of the 40

landings

• The intent of the parametric method is to allow extrapolation to

“aggressive performance landing “ conditions while reducing the risk for
aircraft damage during landing performance tests

• The certified air distance is estimated, from the parametric equations, for
an “aggressive” condition where the aircraft approaches on a 3.5 degrees
at 50 ft and touches down with a rate of descent of 8 ft/sec

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Enroute and landing performance
 Landing – Calculation of landing distance (Cont’d)
 Description of the parametric method (Cont’d)
• The air time obtained from the parametric equations must checked against
the minimum demonstrated air time
- If calculated air time is less than 90 % of the minimum demonstrated air
time, then an air time equal to 90 % of the minimum demonstrated air time
must be used
• Extracts from the relevant sections of AC 25-7A follow (see
http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCi
rcular.nsf)

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Enroute and landing performance
Landing – Calculation of landing distance (Cont’d)

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Enroute and landing performance
Landing – Calculation of landing distance (Cont’d)

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Enroute and landing performance
Landing – Calculation of landing distance (Cont’d)

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Enroute and landing performance
 Landing – Calculation of landing distance (cont’d)
 Segment B – Delay distance

• Distance from VTD to VFB is equal to the time delay from VTD to VFB multiplied
by the average ground speed

- ∆ s = ∆ t delay * average ground speed

- average ground speed = VTDG – (0.5* adelay* ∆ t delay)

• Typical deceleration during the delay distance (adelay) is approx. 3 ft/sec2

• Time delay from VTD to VFB (∆ t delay) is typically equal to

- aircraft without slats and with automatic GLD : 1 second

- aircraft without slats and without automatic GLD : 2 seconds
- aircraft with slats and with automatic GLD : 2 seconds
- aircraft with slats and without automatic GLD : 3 seconds

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Enroute and landing performance
Landing – Calculation of landing distance (cont’d)

 Segment C – Braking distance

• Similarly to the ASD braking segment, the braking distance can be

calculated with either

- a step by step integration process, or with

- a simplified methodology (average deceleration calculated at VRMS)

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Enroute and landing performance
 Landing – Main factors affecting performance
 Landing approach speed

• The main factor that affects landing performance

• Landing distance is proportional to VREF2
• VREF is essentially a function of VSR and CLMAX (slats are important)

 Braking performance

• The second most important factor

• Good lift dumping is necessary (negative CL)
• High anti-skid efficiency is very important

 Time delay

• Reduction in the time delay is beneficial

• Automatic GLD reduces the time delay

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Enroute and landing performance
 Landing – Landing field length
 The landing field length (LFL) defines the minimum runway length
required for a landing as per FAR 121 and JAR OPS 1 requirements

 The LFL is obtained by applying a factor to the actual landing distance

(ALD)

 For a dry runway

• LFLDRY = ALD / 0.6 = 1.67 ALD

• The aircraft must be able to stop within 60 % of the available runway
length

 For a wet runway, the runway length required for a dry runway must be
increased by 15 %

• LFLwet = LFLDRY * 1.15 = 1.92 ALD

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Enroute and landing performance
Landing – Landing field length

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Enroute and landing performance
Landing – Performance-limited landing weight

 The maximum permissible landing weight is limited by the most

limiting of

• landing field length requirements

• landing weight limited by climb requirements

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Enroute and landing performance
 Landing – Landing WAT limits
 Similarly to the take-off phase, to ensure safety, FAR/JAR 25
requirements define minimum climb gradients for the approach and
landing phase (Ref. FAR 25.121)

 The following table summarizes minimum climb gradient

requirements for the approach and landing phase

Requirement Name Flap/Slat Ldg gear Thrust Speed Min. grad. Req'd
FAR 25.121 (d) Approach climb Approach up GA, OEI Vac 2.1%
FAR 25.121 (e) Landing climb Landing down GA,AEO Vlc 3.2%

 Approach climb speed Vac (speed used for go-around climb with OEI)
must not be less than the greater of 1.13Vsr and 1.10 Vmcl
 Landing climb speed (Vlc) must not be less than the greater of 1.13 Vsr
or Vmcl

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Enroute and landing performance
 Landing – Landing WAT limits (Cont’d)
 Go-around is a critical phase of flight

• The thrust used for calculation of landing climb gradient is the thrust
available 8 seconds following a thrust increase from flight idle to go-
around thrust [FAR 25.119 (a)]
- An important requirement for engine design : in order to ensure safety
during go-around, the engine must be able to accelerate quickly from
idle to go-around thrust
• Drag in the landing configuration is very high (up to twice as much as
in the take-off configuration)

• It is important to be able to increase thrust and reduce drag (flap

retraction and landing gear retraction) as rapidly as possible in the
event of a go-around

• The aircraft must also maintain an acceptable margin to stall during

flap retraction if it does not accelerate during go-around
- Far 25.121(d) requires that VSR in the approach configuration must not
exceed 1.1 VSR in the landing configuration

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Enroute and landing performance
Landing – Brake energy considerations
 During a landing, brakes will absorb a certain amount of energy

 Following a high energy landing, heat will be evacuated from the

brake and will be partially transmitted to the wheel / tire assembly

 The heat input to the tire will result in increased tire pressure and
excessive heat transfer to the tire may cause tire explosion

 Wheels are protected by fuseplugs that will melt and release tire
pressure if a critical wheel temperature is reached

• Fuseplug may only release some time after the stop (e.g. 5-40
minutes) due to the lag associated with the heat transfer process

 Means must be provided to the crews to ensure that fuseplugs will not
release during a subsequent take-off that may take place shortly after
the landing

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Enroute and landing performance
Landing – Brake energy considerations (cont’d)
 During certification, a high energy landing must be carried to
demonstrate the maximum level of energy that the brakes can absorb
without causing subsequent fuseplug release (fuseplug integrity test)

 The demonstrated energy level is then used to calculate “maximum

quick turnaround landing weights”

• The maximum quick turnaround landing weight chart provides

operational conditions (weight, altitude, temperature, wind, runway
slope) that would result in a brake energy level that is equal to the
brake energy level obtained during the fuseplug integrity test
• Calculations based on performance-type landing with no reversers

 When landing at weights equal to or greater than the maximum quick

turnaround landing weight, a minimum waiting time and an inspection
of the wheels is required before the subsequent take-off

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Enroute and landing performance
Landing – Brake energy considerations (cont’d)
 Some airplanes are equipped with a Brake Temperature Monitoring
System (BTMS)

 The BTMS provides indications of brake temperatures to the crew

 The BTMS displays temperatures based on color codes

• Green : OK
• White : be careful
• Red : brake overheat

 When aircraft are equipped with BTMS, there is no need to rely on a

quick turnaround landing weight chart
• the aircraft may have to stay a minimum period of time on the ground
(typically 15 minutes) before the next take-off to ensure that
temperature has reached its maximum level (thermal lag associated
with the location of BTMS temperature sensors )

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Enroute and landing performance