Module 7

Aircraft Performance
Module 7
Where are we?
1 : Introduction to aircraft performance, atmosphere
2 : Aerodynamics, air data measurements
3 : Weights / CG, engine performance, level flight
4 : Turning flight, flight envelope
5 : Climb and descent performance
6 : Cruise and endurance
7 : Payload-range, cost index
8 : Take-off performance
9 : Take-off performance
10 : Enroute and landing performance
11 : Wet and contaminated runways
12 : Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
2
Payload-range and Cost Index
Payload-range
3
Payload-range - Introduction
4
Payload-range – Mission profile
5
Payload-range – Mission profile (Cont’d)
6
7
8
Payload-range – Fuel reserves
9
Payload-range – Fuel reserves (Cont’d)
10
Payload-range – Fuel reserves (Cont’d)
11
Payload-range – Range calculation
12
Payload-range – Range calculation (Cont’d)
13
Assume values for OWE, payload, fuel quantity, fuel reserves, and cruise flight level

Fuel quantity must not exceed maximum fuel capacity

•
ZFW = OWE + payload


ZFW must not exceed MZFW
• If ZFW > MZFW, payload must be reduced
•
Ramp Weight RW = ZFW + fuel quantity


RW must not exceed MRW

• If RW > MRW, fuel or payload must be reduced
•
14
15
Climb from 1500 ft to top of climb (initial cruise flight level)

Climb time, distance and fuel are calculated or obtained from manufacturer’s climb data
• Weight at top of climb = WTOC = WETO – climb fuel
• Verify that r/c at top of climb meets minimum required r/c (reduce cruise flight level if minimum requirement is not met)
•
Determine weight at beginning of approach and landing WBAL


Approach and landing fuel and time are calculated or specified

• WBAL = LW + approach and landing fuel
•
16
17
18
19
Payload-range – Payload-range diagram
16000 A
A MZFW Limit B
Payload - lb
12000 MTO
W Lim
it C
8000
M
ax imi
4000
.
L
Fu
0
el
t
0 1000 2000 3000 D
Range - nm
20
Payload-range – Payload-range diagram (Cont’d)
16000 A
A MZFW Limit B
Payload - lb
12000 MTO
W Lim
it C
8000
M
ax imi
4000
.
L
Fu
0
el
t
0 1000 2000 3000 D
Range - nm
21
16000 A
A MZFW Limit B
Payload - lb
12000 MTO
W Lim
it C
8000
M
ax imi
4000
.
L
Fu
0
el
t
0 1000 2000 3000 D
Range - nm
22
23
Cost index
24
Cost index - Introduction
 We can now calculate the fuel and time required for a given mission using various assumptions regarding operation of the aircraft:
Climb speed
•
Cruise altitude
•
Cruise speed
•
Descent speed
•
 Operationally, it is desirable to select assumptions such that operating costs will be minimized
 The Cost Index concept is used by many airlines as a means to select optimum operating conditions and to minimize operating costs
25
Cost Index - Economy Speed
 Cost components
• Crew - f(time)
• Fuel - f(time,L/D,TSFC)
• DMC - f(time,rating)
• Ldg/Nav - f(weight)
 Economy speed is the speed that minimizes total (time+fuel) costs

Fuel + Time
Cost Fuel
Time
Max SAR Economy VMO / MMO
Block Speed
26
Cot Index - Economy Speed Sample Calculation
 767-200 at 35,000 feet

 Weight - 310,000 pounds 100 NM
 Time-related costs - $500 per flight-hour
 Fuel costs - $.10 per pound
Mach 0.75 0.77 0.79 0.81 0.83

Knots TAS 432 444 455 467 478
SAR – NM / lb 0.0446 0.0448 0.0447 0.0436 0.0408
Time - hours 0.231 0.225 0.220 0.214 0.209
Fuel - Pounds 2,242 2,230 2,235 2,294 2,451
Time-related cost - $ 115 113 110 107 105
Fuel cost - $ 224 223 224 229 245
Total cost - $ 340 336 334 336 360
27
Cost Index – Derivation of Cost Index
Cash or Direct time related fixed cost

Operating Cost cost component component
C=C I  p f  W fu e C
l
III
fuel price block fuel
dC d I dWfuel dW fuel C I
= C + pf =0 =−
dt dt dt dt min cos t
pf
differential eqn for min. cost
I
C
CI = −
pf
One
Onenumber
numberserves
servesto
toidentify
identifythe
theeconomy
economy
flight
flighttechnique
techniquefor
forall
allmissions
missions
28
Cost Index – Derivation of Cost Index (Cont’d)
In practice, Cost Index (CI) is calculated as follows in the American environment:

CI = (Time-related cost) / (Fuel cost)
CI = ($ / flight hour) / [ $ / (lb of fuel) * 100 ]
CI is a fixed value for a given airline and a given aircraft type


CI can be calculated for the previous example:
Time-related cost = 500 $ / hour

•
Fuel cost = 0.10 $ / lb of fuel
•
CI = 50
29
Cost Index - Block Fuel-Time Curve
• Many flight techniques
share the same Cost Index
• Flight technique with
Distinct flight techniques;
minimum fuel for given
each denotes a given
climb schedule,
Cost Index is min. cost
Minimum initial cruise altitude,
Block Time
cruise speed, step profile
Fuel and descent schedule
Optimum altitude or
Maximum service ceiling
Increasing
Altitude Minimum
Fuel
High speed climb and Intermediate to low

descent modes combined speed climb and descent modes
with Max. Cruise to combined with intermediate to
intermediate cruise speeds Max (or Long) Range Cruise speeds
Block Time
30
Cost Index Values for Various Equipment
COST INDEX COST INDEX COST INDEX COST INDEX
High-speed Prop 50-seat Turbofan 70/90-seat Turbofan B737
COST INDEX COST INDEX COST INDEX COST INDEX
MD-80 B757 A300 B747
31
Performance Document Presentation for Climb
common
0
0
50
10
x=
cruise point
nde
st I
Co
common
initial climb
 Some observations
• Objective is least cost to climb to common cruise point
• Max RoC (steeper trajectory) & min. fuel with Cost Index Zero
• CLB thrust decrease = slower economy climb speed
• Tailwind = slower economy climb speed
32
Performance Document Presentation for Cruise
Fixed Altitude
• Cost Index promotes less variation in Mach as AUW decreases
• Tailwind = slower economy cruise speed
33
Performance Document Presentation for Descent
100
common Co
50
cruise point st
Ind
ex
=0
common EoD @
common speed
• Objective is least cost to descend from common cruise point
• Max RoD (steeper trajectory) at high Cost Index
34
Identifying Economy Flight Techniques:
CRJ700, 1000 nm Sector Example
Trajectory A: Minimum Fuel
Optimum Altitude CLB Mode L, MRC and DES Mode L
TOC BOD
Trajectory B: Intermediate
CLB Mode L, MCRZ and DES Mode L
Flight Level
Trajectory C: Minimum Time

CLB Mode H, MCRZ and DES Mode H
Cruise Soaking
Origin Destination
35
Identifying Economy Flight Techniques:
CRJ700, 1000 nm Sector Example (Cont’d)
9800 CLB Mode H
MCRZ @ FL 310
9600 DES Mode H
9400
9200
mean curve
9000
Block Fuel (lb)
8800
CLB Mode H
8600 MCRZ @ FL 390
DES Mode H
8400 CLB Mode L
MCRZ @ FL 390
8200 DES Mode N
8000
Cost Index = 22 CLB Mode L
7800 Close to MRC @ FL 390
DES Mode L
7600
150 152 154 156 158 160 162 164 166 168
Block Time (min.)
 Based on input crew cost, engine/airframe maintenance cost, materials
cost, reserves and typical fuel price ==> Cost Index = 22
 Optimal technique in ISA, still air corresponds to
CLB Mode L / MCRZ @ opt. FL / DES Mode N
36

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Aircraft Performance

Fuel quantity must not exceed maximum fuel capacity

ZFW = OWE + payload

Ramp Weight RW = ZFW + fuel quantity

RW must not exceed MRW

Determine weight at beginning of approach and landing WBAL

Approach and landing fuel and time are calculated or specified

 Economy speed is the speed that minimizes total (time+fuel) costs

Max SAR Economy VMO / MMO

 767-200 at 35,000 feet

Mach 0.75 0.77 0.79 0.81 0.83

Cash or Direct time related fixed cost

fuel price block fuel

CI = (Time-related cost) / (Fuel cost)

CI = ($ / flight hour) / [ $ / (lb of fuel) * 100 ]

CI is a fixed value for a given airline and a given aircraft type

CI can be calculated for the previous example:

Time-related cost = 500 $ / hour

High speed climb and Intermediate to low

COST INDEX COST INDEX COST INDEX COST INDEX

High-speed Prop 50-seat Turbofan 70/90-seat Turbofan B737

COST INDEX COST INDEX COST INDEX COST INDEX

MD-80 B757 A300 B747

Trajectory C: Minimum Time

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