Module 3

Aicraft Performance
Module 3
Where are we?
1 : Introduction to aircraft performance, atmosphere

2 : Aerodynamics, air data measurements
3 : Weights / CG, engine performance, level flight
4 : Turning flight, flight envelope
5 : Climb and descent performance
6 : Cruise and endurance
7 : Payload-range, cost index
8 : Take-off performance
9 : Take-off performance
10 : Enroute and landing performance
11 : Wet and contaminated runways
12 : Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
2
Weights / CG, engine performance, level flight
Weights / CG
 Introduction
 Basic weights definitions
 CG envelopes
 Ground balance
 Flight Balance
 Trim drag
 Aircraft loadability
3
Weights / CG - Introduction
 Weights/CG considerations are very important in aeronautical

engineering
 Safety aspects
• Aircraft controllability and stability is not guaranteed if CG is
outside certified limits
• Stall margin will be reduced if actual weight is greater than
assumed weight
 Performance aspects
• Significant change in performance when weight varies
• Ex : Take-off distance is proportional to W2
• Aircraft empty weight has a great impact on payload / range
capability and fuel burn for a specific mission
• Drag increases as CG moves forward
• Weight guarantees / remedies
4
Weights / CG – Basic weight definitions
 Many basic weight definitions must be introduced as they are
directly related to aircraft performance
 Manufacturer’s Weight Empty (MWE)
• The MWE consists of the weight of the structure, power plant,
systems and interior provisions as defined in the Type
Specification. The MWE excludes the engine oil and unusable
fuel
 Delivered Weight Empty (DWE)
• The DWE consists of MWE, all fixed interior equipment (both
standard and optional) and customer options.
 Operating Weight Empty (OWE)
• The OWE consists of DWE plus operating items:
- Engine oil
- Unusable fuel
- Crew
- Crew equipment
- Passenger service items
- Other items required for normal operation
5
Weights / CG – Basic weight definitions (Cont’d)
 Zero Fuel Weight (ZFW)

• OWE plus payload (passengers, baggage and cargo)
 Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW)
• Maximum weight allowed before usable fuel is loaded on the
aircraft (structural limit)
 Maximum Landing Weight (MLW)
• Maximum aircraft weight for landing (structural limit)
 Maximum Take-Off Weight (MTOW)
• The maximum weight allowed at the start of take-off roll
(structural limit)
 Maximum Ramp Weight (MRW)
• The maximum possible aircraft weight. Operation at MRW is
permitted for ground handling and taxi only (structural limit)
6
Weights / CG – CG envelopes
 CG problems are not new !
7
Weights / CG – CG envelopes (Cont’d)
 But are more embarrassing in modern times!
8
CG limits
9
 Typical CG envelope
80000
75000 Fwd limit Aft limit Maximum Take-off Weight
70000
Maximum Landing Weight
Aircraft Weight (lb)
65000
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight
60000
55000
50000
Flight limit Ground limit
Ground limit
45000
Flight limit
40000
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Xcg (% MAC)
10
 Why ground limits and flight limits

• Optimize structure (gear loads)
• Optimize take-off / landing performance
• Allow in flight movement of passengers
• Flight Attendant with cart
11
Weights / CG – Ground Balance
NZ NLG NZ MLG
12
Weights / CG – Flight balance
LW LT
13
Weights / CG – Trim drag
Aft CG
LW LT
When flying at fwd CG :
• Additional nose-down pitching
moment due to CG being more
forward
D
• LT must be increased to compensate
nose-down pitching moment
• LW is increased so that total lift is W
equal to weight ( LW+LT = W )
• Greater LW results in greater α and

LW LT
greater induced drag Fwd CG
• Drag increase due to shift in CG is
referred to as trim drag
• Flight at aft CG results in lower drag

D
W
14
Weights / CG – Loadability
•Typical Wt build-up
Item Description (lb) (in) % MAC

M.W.E. Bare 40000 790.0 35.2
Interior 3000.0 790.0
M.W.E. Delivered 43000 790.0 35.2
Addition of Operating Items 1400.0 580.0
O.W.E. 44400 783.4 30.2
Addition of Payload
Passengers 14000.0 790.0
Aft Baggage 1400.0 1000.0
Zero Fuel Weight 59800 790.0 35.2
Addition of Fuel 15200.0 776.6
Ramp Weight 75000 787.3 33.2
15
Weights / CG – Loadability (Cont’d)
80000
75000
Fuel ctr
70000
Aft
65000
Bag Fuel
Aircraft Weight (lb)
60000 mains
55000 Back
to
Aisle Front
50000
Front
Window
to
45000
Back
PASSENGERS
40000
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Xcg (% MAC)
16
Engine Performance
 Introduction
 Turbofan engine
 Basic thrust equations
 Thrust ratings
 Installation effects
 Factors affecting thrust
 Fuel consumption
 Reverse thrust
 Reduced thrust and derate
PW500
17
Engine Performance - Introduction
 Engine performance has a direct impact on aircraft performance

• Take-off distance, rate of climb, climb ceiling and maximum
cruise speed are function of the thrust available
• Endurance and range are function of the fuel consumption
 Focus on turbofan engines – widespread use in commercial

airplanes
 Intent is to give background information for performance

calculations
• Many technical details are covered in Turbomachinery courses
18
Engine Performance – Turbofan engine
 Dual rotor assembly – fan rotor (N1) and compressor rotor (N2)
 Core air is compressed, ignited, exhausted through turbines and
accelerated through exhaust nozzle
 Bypass air passes through the fan and is ducted around the engine
 Thrust is controlled via N1 or EPR (Engine Pressure Ratio)
 BPR = Bypass Ratio = (dm/dt)bypass/(dm/dt)core
19
Engine Performance – Basic thrust equations
Vo Ve
(dm/dt)o (dm/dt)e
 Net thrust = FN or T = (dm/dt)eVe + A (pe–po) – (dm/dt)oVo

 Gross thrust = FG = (dm/dt)eVe + A (pe–po)
 Ram drag = FR = (dm/dt)oVo
 Pressure thrust = A (pe–po) (normally negligible)
20
Engine Performance – Thrust Ratings
 Thrust ratings can be achieved either by setting thrust levers is specific

detents or by adjusting lever angle to obtain a specific N1 or EPR
 Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) simplifies selection of

thrust ratings for the pilot
• Thrust settings corresponding to the various ratings are programmed
as a function of altitude, temperature and airspeed
 Ratings are associated specific engine temperature limitations – Inter

Turbine Temperature (ITT) or Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) limits
are defined (red lines)
21
Engine Performance
Thrust
Flat rating Constant ITT
Thrust
Setting
Parameter
EPR
Flat rating
temp. N1
Outside air temperature
22
Engine Performance – Thrust Ratings (cont’d)
 Take-off (TO)
• Maximum thrust available for take-off
• May be different for All-Engines-Operating (AEO) or One-Engine-
Inoperative (OEI)
- Normal Take-Off (NTO) for AEO
- Maximum Take-Off (MTO) or Automatic Power Reserve (APR) for OEI
- APR system
- OEI thrust ≤ 1.10 AEO thrust
• Time limited (5 minutes for AEO, 5 or 10 minutes for OEI)
• Highest thrust level and highest ITT/EGT limit
 Maximum Continuous (MCT)
• Maximum thrust which may be used continuously and is intended only
for emergency use (OEI) at the discretion of the pilot
 Maximum Climb (MCL)
• Maximum rating approved for normal climb
23
Engine Performance – Thrust Ratings (Cont’d)
 Maximum Cruise (MCR)

• Maximum rating approved for cruising
• MCR is normally slightly lower than MCL
 Go-around (GA)
• Maximum rating approved for go-around
• Normally equal to TO and may be different for AEO or OEI
conditions
 Maximum Reverse
• Not a rating but a thrust lever position associated with use of
reverse thrust on the ground
 Idle
• Not a rating but a thrust lever position suitable for minimum thrust
operation on the ground or in flight
• Ground idle versus approach idle
• Impact on brake heating during taxi
24
Engine Performance – Installation effects
 Engine manufacturers provide engine performance models for

uninstalled engines
 Addition of an engine nacelle and attachment of the engine to the
aircraft result in losses in engine performance (installation losses)
 Engine performance models must be adjusted to take installation
effects into account
 Main installation effects include
• Engine inlet efficiency (ram recovery)
• Exhaust nozzle efficiency
• Nacelle leakage
• Scrubbing drag
• Interference with the pylon
 Installation effects may have a significant impact on engine
performance
25
Engine Performance – Factors affecting thrust
 Effect of altitude
• T reduces as altitude increases
 Effect of airspeed
• T reduces as airspeed increases
 Effect of temperature
• Gas turbine engines are sensitive to to variation in air temperature
• Thrust output can vary by +/- 20 % from the specified rating on a
cold day or a hot day
 Effect of humidity
• Thrust decreases slightly as humidity increases
• FAR 25 defines humidity levels that must be assumed for thrust
determination
26
Engine Performance – Factors affecting thrust (Cont’d)
 Fan speed N1
• The pilot can set any thrust level between idle and rated thrust by
varying N1
• Relationship between FN and N1 is not linear
 Engine bleed extraction
• Compressed air may be extracted from the engine core for use in
other systems
- Anti-icing, air conditioning, …
• For a given fan speed N1, bleed extraction has essentially no effect
on thrust but it causes an increase in ITT / EGT
• When operating at temperatures above the flat rating, N1 must be
reduced in order not to exceed the ITT / EGT limit
• The reduction in N1 may have a significant impact on thrust
• Typical thrust reductions associated with bleed extraction : 0 – 2 %
for air conditioning, 0 - 10 % for anti-icing
27
Engine Performance (Cont’d)
Thrust
Ze
(lb) ro
En en
gi gin
ne eb
bl lee
ee d
d
op
en
Thrust Ze
ro
Setting en
gin
En eb
g ine lee
(N1-%) d
ble
ed
op
en
Outside air temperature

28
Engine Performance – Fuel consumption
 Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)
• SFC = FF / FN
FF = Fuel flow (lb / hr)
SFC units : (lb/hr)fuel / lbthrust
 SFC levels of approximately 0.3 to 0.5 are obtained with modern
turbofan engines at SL
 Turbojet engines have SFC levels of approximately 1.0 (up to 2.0
with after burner)
 SFC varies as a function of flight condition (altitude, Mach number,
thrust level) (typically, SFC = 0.6 to 0.8 in cruise)
 SFC varies also as a function of time (SFC deterioration)
• Engine wear results in reduced efficiency
• SFC deterioration is partially recovered at engine overhaul
• Deterioration may reach important levels ( up to 6 % and more)
• Fuel loads must be adjusted accordingly
• SFC has a significant impact on aircraft operating costs
29
Engine Performance – Reverse thrust
 Reverse thrust is used as a means to decelerate the aircraft during

landing or during a rejected take-off
 Reverse thrust can also sometimes be used to back the aircraft at
the gate (reverse taxi)
 Two types of thrust reversers
• Cascade-type : bypass air is reversed – relatively low reverse
thrust levels (illustrated above)
• Bucket-type : both bypass and core airflows are reversed – higher
reverse thrust levels
30
Engine Performance – Reverse thrust (Cont’d)
 Utilization of reverse thrust may result in significant reductions of

stopping distances when runway is wet or contaminated
• Reverse thrust is needed operationally (ref. to early EMB 145)
 Use of high levels of reverse thrust at low speed may cause engine
damage
• Hot air re-ingestion
• Foreign Object Damage (FOD) due to debris on the runway
• Limitations are normally applied to restrict the use of high reverse
thrust levels at lower airspeeds (e.g. selection of reverse idle at
speeds lower than 60 knots) – through FADEC or manually
 Reverse thrust levels are difficult to predict
• Complex airflow patterns due to interaction with the ground and
other aircraft parts
• Theoretical reverse thrust levels are adjusted with a “reverse thrust
efficiency factor” determined from flight tests in order to account
for such effects
31
Engine Performance – Reverse thrust (Cont’d)
 Dynamic response of the thrust reverser system may have an

important impact on aircraft stopping distance
• Time delays for reverse thrust selection, thrust reverser
deployment and engine spool-up to maximum reverse
 Controllability aspects
• Deterioration of directional control may happen when thrust
reversers are used (rudder blanking effect with aft mounted
engines) and particularly when crosswinds are present
• Nose-up pitching moment when reverse thrust is selected on
aircraft with thrust line above CG
• Controllability with one engine inoperative and one engine at
maximum reverse thrust on the ground at lower airspeeds
- Performance credit can only be taken for the amount of reverse
thrust that is controllable
32
Engine Performance – Reduced Thrust and Derates
 Use of take-off rated thrust levels has an impact on engine SFC

deterioration with time – it reduces engine life
 Two methods are used operationally to preserve engine life :
reduced thrust take-off and derates
 Reduced thrust take-off
• Sometimes referred to as “flex” take-off procedure or “assumed
temperature method”
• Can only be used when excess performance is available with rated
take-off thrust
• Pilot uses a lower thrust setting that allows to meet all take-off
performance requirements (field length, obstacles, …)
• Thrust reduction must not exceed 25 %
• Pilot may, at his discretion, increase thrust at any time during take-
off (e.g. in case of engine failure)
• Not allowed on contaminated runways
• Used routinely by airlines
33
Engine Performance – Reduced Thrust and Derates
 Derates
• Set of distinct thrust ratings that can be selected by the pilot

before take-off
• A set of AFM performance charts is available for each derate level
• The selected rating is a limitation and cannot be changed during
take-off (minimum control speed considerations)
• Pilot uses a derate that allows to meet all take-off performance
requirements (field length, obstacles, …)
• No limit on thrust reduction relative to rated take-off thrust
• A reduced thrust procedure can be applied to each derate level
• Not as much used as reduced thrust take-off procedure but it can
provide somewhat greater savings in engine life
34
Level Flight
 Understand physics associated with level flight
• Balance of forces
• Maximum cruise speed
• Minimum drag speed and speed stability
35
Level flight – Balance of forces
 In straight and level flight, the balance of horizontal and vertical

forces can be defined as follows
T=D (T is assumed to act along the speed vector)

L=W
Lift
Thrust Drag
V
Weight
36
Level flight – Drag Versus Speed
Total drag
Parasite drag
Drag Min. drag
(lb)
Induced drag Compr. Drag
Mach number
37
Level flight – Thrust and Drag Versus Speed
D, T and Excess thrust (T-D) versus Mach number

Negative thrust response at constant TLA
Drag
Force
(1000 lb) Thrust
Excess thrust
Mach number Trim Mach number
38
Level flight – Vmd and Speed Stability
 Speed stability can be defined as the tendency of the aircraft,
when stabilized in a given flight condition, to return to that speed
if it is disturbed from that stable condition
 Speed stability is not only a function of drag (back side of the
drag curve), but it is also a function of thrust variation as a
function of speed (unless thrust is constant as a function of
speed)
 Positive speed stability when excess thrust decreases with a
speed increase
 Negative speed stability when excess thrust increases with a
speed increase
 Aircraft are not generally operated in areas where speed stability
is negative because of the increased pilot workload
 Speed stability can be improved with an auto-throttle system
• Can incorporate a logic that modifies the relationship between
thrust and speed (relative to the relationship at fixed TLA)
39

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Aicraft Performance

1 : Introduction to aircraft performance, atmosphere

 Weights/CG considerations are very important in aeronautical

 Zero Fuel Weight (ZFW)

 CG problems are not new !

 But are more embarrassing in modern times!

75000 Fwd limit Aft limit Maximum Take-off Weight

 Why ground limits and flight limits

• Greater LW results in greater α and

• Flight at aft CG results in lower drag

Item Description (lb) (in) % MAC

 Engine performance has a direct impact on aircraft performance

 Focus on turbofan engines – widespread use in commercial

 Intent is to give background information for performance

 Net thrust = FN or T = (dm/dt)eVe + A (pe–po) – (dm/dt)oVo

 Thrust ratings can be achieved either by setting thrust levers is specific

 Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) simplifies selection of

 Ratings are associated specific engine temperature limitations – Inter

Flat rating Constant ITT

 Maximum Cruise (MCR)

 Engine manufacturers provide engine performance models for

Outside air temperature

 Reverse thrust is used as a means to decelerate the aircraft during

 Utilization of reverse thrust may result in significant reductions of

 Dynamic response of the thrust reverser system may have an

 Use of take-off rated thrust levels has an impact on engine SFC

• Set of distinct thrust ratings that can be selected by the pilot

 In straight and level flight, the balance of horizontal and vertical

T=D (T is assumed to act along the speed vector)

Induced drag Compr. Drag

D, T and Excess thrust (T-D) versus Mach number

Mach number Trim Mach number

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