Module 2

Aircraft Performance
Module 2
Where are we?
1 : Introduction to aircraft performance, atmosphere
2 : Aerodynamics, air data measurements
3 : Weights / CG, engine performance, level flight
4 : Turning flight, flight envelope
5 : Climb and descent performance
6 : Cruise and endurance
7 : Payload-range, cost index
8 : Take-off performance
9 : Take-off performance
10 : Enroute and landing performance
11 : Wet and contaminated runways
12 : Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
2
Aerodynamics, air data measurements
Aerodynamics
 Incompressible Bernoulli equation
 Speed of sound and Mach number
 Compressible Bernoulli equation
 Flow relations near the speed of sound
 Airfoil properties
 Viscosity effects
 Lift and drag
 High-lift devices
3
Incompressible Bernoulli equation
 Describes variation of pressure and velocity in a streamtube
• F = ma
• Net force : pA - (p + dp)A = -dp A
• Mass of the element is ρ A ds
• F = ma can be transformed into -dp A = ρ A ds dV/dt
• Can be rewritten as -dp A = ρ A ds/dt dV or dp = - ρ V dV
• Assuming ρ is constant, integration of the equation gives
p + ρ V2/2 = constant
• (valid for incompressible flow only)
4
Incompressible Bernoulli equation (Cont’d)
 P is the static pressure
 ρ V2/2 is the dynamic pressure (q)
 Sum of static and dynamic pressures is the total pressure
• ps + ρ V /2 = pt
2
• ps + q = pt
• p 1 + q1 = p2 + q 2
 Direct application of the Bernoulli equation is the pitot-static tube
5
Incompressible Bernoulli equation (Cont’d)
 Tube is aligned with the flow

 Freestream static pressure and velocity are p0 and V0
 At point 1, V1 = 0 (stagnation point)
 At point 2, V2 = V0
 Applying Bernoulli equation between points 0 and 1
p1 = po + ρ Vo2/2
•
 Applying Bernoulli equation between points 0 and 2
p 2 = po
•
∆ p = p1 - p2 = ρ Vo2/2
6
Speed of sound and Mach number
 a = speed of sound
 a = (γ p/ρ ) = (γ RT) (T= absolute temperature)
0.5 0.5
∀ γ = ratio of specific heats (constant pressure and constant volume)

∀ γ = Cp/Cv = 1.4 for air
∀ γ and R remain constant in the atmosphere
 a = constant x T
0.5
a = a oθ 0.5
ao is the speed of sound under SL ISA conditions (T= 15oC)

•
ao = 661.48 knots = 1116.45 ft/sec = 340.28 m/s = 1225.0 km/h
•
• note : 1 knot = 1 nautical mile (nm) / h, 1 nm corresponds to an arc of one minute (1/60 of a degree) over the earth surface
th
 Mach number (M) is the ratio of local air velocity to local speed of sound
M=V/a
7
Compressible Bernoulli equation
 Air moving at speeds below 200 knots may be treated as an

incompressible fluid
 At higher speeds, it is necessary to consider the variation of density as
the airflow is compressed an another form of the Bernoulli equation
must be used
• dp = - ρ V dV (presented earlier)
• p/ρ γ = constant = C (derived from Boyle’s Law for adiabatic flow)
• The two equations above can be combined to give
C 1/ γ p-1/ γ dp = - V dV
• Integration of the equation gives
C 1/ γ p-1/ γ -1 /(-1/γ -1) + V2/2 = constant
• Can be rewritten as
(γ /(γ -1))p(C/p)1/ γ + V2/2 = constant
8
Compressible Bernoulli equation (Cont’d)
• Substituting (C/p)1/ γ = 1/ρ , the Bernoulli equation for compressible fluids becomes
(γ /(γ -1))p/ρ + V2/2 = constant
• The flow equation may be written for any two points in the fluid
(γ /(γ -1))p1/ρ 1 + V12/2 = (γ /(γ -1))p2/ρ 2 + V22/2
• Since γ = 1.4 for air, equations can be rewritten as
3.5 p/ρ + V2/2 = constant

3.5 p1/ρ 1 + V12/2 = 3.5 p2/ρ 2 + V22/2
9
Flow relations near the speed of sound
 Behaviour of fluid flow near the speed of sound is of primary
importance
 Classification of high speed flight
• Subsonic M<1
• Sonic M=1
• Supersonic M>1
• Transonic 0.80 < M < 1.3 (Approximately)
• Hypersonic 5 < M < 10
• Hypervelocity M > 10
 Relationships between total and static temperature, density and
pressure can be derived from Bernoulli compressible equation
for compressible isentropic flow
10
Flow relations near the speed of sound (Cont’d)
(γ /(γ -1))p1/ρ 1 + V12/2 = (γ /(γ -1))p2/ρ 2 + V22/2
 Point 1 = reservoir (subscript T for total) : VT = 0
 Point 2 = some point in the channel (no subscript)
(γ /(γ -1))pT/ρ T = (γ /(γ -1))p/ρ + V2/2
 Knowing that a2 = γ p/ρ and aT2 = γ pT/ρ T :
aT2 / (γ -1) = a2 /(γ -1) + V2/2
 Dividing each side of the equation by a2
(1/(γ -1)) aT2 / a2 = 1/(γ -1) + ½ V2/ a 2
 Knowing that aT2 / a2 = TT / T , V/a = M and rearranging :
TT / T = 1 + ((γ -1)/2) M 2 = 1 + 0.2 M 2
 From pT/p = (ρ T / ρ ) (TT / T ) and pT/p = (ρ T /ρ )γ :
ρ T / ρ = (1 + ((γ -1)/2) M 2) 1/( γ -1)

= (1 + 0.2 M 2) 2.5
pT/p = (1 + ((γ -1)/2) M 2) γ /( γ -1)

= (1 + 0.2 M 2) 3.5
11
Airfoil properties
 Physical properties of the wing
• Wingspan (b) is the tip to tip dimension of the wing
• Chord (c) is the distance from the wing leading edge to the
trailing edge
• Wing area (S) is the projection of the outline of the plane of the
chord
• Aspect ratio (AR) of a wing is defined as

AR = b/c for a wing with constant chord (rectangular wing)
AR = b2/S
• Taper ratio (λ ) is the ratio of the tip chord (ct) to the root chord
(cr)
λ = ct / cr
12
Airfoil properties (Cont’d)
 Physical properties of the wing (Cont’d)
• Mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) is the chord of a section of an
imaginary airfoil on the wing which would have force vectors
throughout the flight range identical to those of the actual
wing
- Can be determined graphically or by integration
∫ db
2
c
MAC =
S
13
 Physical properties of the wing (Cont’d)
• MAC is used as a reference for locating the relative positions of the
wing center of lift and the airplane center of gravity (CG)
• Center of lift is normally located at the quarter chord (c/4) of the
MAC
• Sweepback (Λ ) is the angle between a line perpendicular to the
plane of symmetry of the airplane and the quarter chord of each
airfoil section
14
 Aerodynamic properties of the wing
• Pressure distribution around an airfoil in an airflow is a function of the airfoil shape (camber) and the
angle of attack (α )
• The angle of attack is the relative angle between the freestream velocity (Vo) and the chord (or the
fuselage)
• The integration of the pressure distribution around the airfoil can be resolved in two component forces
acting at the center of pressure
Lift (L) is perpendicular to the freestream velocity

Drag (D) is parallel to the freestream velocity
D α
V
15
 L = CLqS
CL is the lift coefficient, CL = L / (qS) , dimensionless
S is the wing area (ft2)
q is the dynamic pressure (lb/ft2)
q = 0.5ρ V2 (q in lb/ft2 , ρ in slugs/ft3 and V in ft/sec )

or
q = 1481.3 δ M2 (q in lb/ft2)
 Under level flight conditions, L = W and CL can then expressed as
CL = W / (qS)
16
 Lift is normally defined in terms of the load factor normal to the flight path Nz
L = NzW or Nz = L / W
 Under level flight conditions, Nz = 1.0 (I.e. 1 g)
 A more general equation defining CL can be introduced
CL = NzW / (qS)
 D = CDqS
CD is the drag coefficient, dimensionless
CD = D / (qS)
17
Viscosity effects
 Viscosity is the result of shear forces acting on the fluid, or the tendency of one layer of fluid to drag along the layer
next to it
 The boundary layer is a finite thickness of fluid next to a surface which is retarded relative to the free stream velocity
 Flow in the boundary layer can be laminar or turbulent depending upon
• the smoothness of flow approaching the body, the shape of the body, the surface roughness, the pressure gradient in the
direction of flow and the Reynolds number (RN) of the flow (dimensionless)
 RN = ρ Vl/µ
• l is length from leading edge (ft)
• µ is the dynamic viscosity (lb-sec/ft2)
• µ = 0.3125 x 10-7 T1.5 / (T + 120) where T is in oK
 Friction drag of laminar flow is smaller than friction drag of turbulent flow
18
Viscosity effects (cont’d)
RN at the transition is
approximately 530,000
19
Lift and drag
 Airplane lift and drag vary as a function of α
•Linear portion of lift curve is where the aircraft normally

operates
• For performance analysis, it is more practical to look at the
variation of CD in terms of CL
20
Lift and drag (Cont’d)
 In the range of CL corresponding to normal low speed operation, CD can be closely approximated by :
 CD = A + B CL 2 = CDP + CDI
 CDP = parasite drag
 CDi = induced drag = CL 2 / (∏ AR e)
 CDi = K CL 2, K is the induced drag factor
 e is the Oswald efficiency factor
• CL / CD = L / D = Lift to drag ratio

• L / D max = max. L/D or min. drag
21
ΔCDcomp
CD = CDP + KCL2 + ΔCDcomp
(CD – CDREF )
CL
Fixed CL
CDREF
CD M
22
23
Other factors affecting airplane drag
During operation with one engine inoperative, additional drag results from
 Windmilling engine – ∆ CDWM - Data provided by engine manufacturers – typically a function of M and δ
•
-
Airplane control deflections and sideslip required to control an asymmetric thrust condition - ∆ CDCNTL - function of yawing moment due to thrust
Drag increment due to deflection of spoilers – ∆ CDSP

In flight or on the ground (ground lift dumpers)
• Function of CL and M
-
-
Drag increment due to landing gear - ∆ CDLG

Function of CL
•
-
Deployment of leading edge and trailing edge high-lift devices

Discussed in the next section
•
-
24
High-lift Devices
Two types of devices are commonly used to increase CLMAX , the maximum lift coefficient, and to reduce the stall speed VS

Trailing edge flaps
•
Leading edge slats
•
 Trailing edge flaps provide an increase in camber
Increase in CL at a given angle of attack – increase is essentially proportional to flap deflection
•
Drag increase
•
Reduction of the angle of attack at the stall
•
 Leading edge slats provide smoother air on the upper surface of the wing
Slats take high pressure air from under the wing leading edge through a slot to the upper surface
•
Results in greater CLMAX and greater angle of attack at the stall
•
Drag increase
•
Trailing edge flaps and leading edge slats may be used in combination in order to maximize CLMAX

25
High-lift Devices (Cont’d)
Effect of slat on air flow
Effect of flaps and slats
26
High-lift Devices (Cont’d)
ΔCDP
Lift and drag

increments from
various types of
trailing edge
flaps relative to
clean wing
27
ΔCL
Air data measurements
 Introduction
 Airspeed
 Mach number
 Altitude
 Temperature
 Relationship between flight parameters
 Angle of attack
 Typical Pitot-static system
 Position errors
28
Introduction
 Air data measurements relate atmospheric parameters to the motion of the aircraft
• Airspeed, Mach number, altitude, temperature and angle of attack are important parameters for
performance analysis
 The objective of this section is to describe :
• The physical principles normally used for these parameters

• The methods of measurement
• The calibration procedures
• The applicable regulations
29
Airspeed – True airspeed
 The airspeed V that has been introduced previously is called the true airspeed
Sometimes also defined as TAS
•
 The true airspeed is the speed of the aircraft relative to the undisturbed air mass. V is the sum of
The aircraft ground speed Vg (i.e. speed relative to the earth)
•
The wind speed vector
•
 Example : An airplane flies in level flight at a ground speed Vg of 500 knots in a tailwind of 50 knots -> V = 450 knots
 V has only limited applications operationally.
 Other airspeeds must be defined : Calibrated airspeed

Equivalent airspeed
Indicated airspeed
30
Airspeed – Calibrated airspeed
Total pressure
port
Static
ports
Typical Pitot-static probe
31
Airspeed – Calibrated airspeed (Cont’d)
 The compressible Bernoulli equation is the basis for calibrating the airspeed indicator
pT - p = q c = p [ (1 + ((γ -1)/2) (V/a) 2) γ /( γ -1)

- 1]
 The indicator is only driven by the pressure difference (pT – p) or impact pressure (q c) obtained from a pitot-static installation
• Static pressure (p) and speed of sound (a), which is a function of temperature, are not known
• True air speed V can not be related directly to impact pressure
 Solution is to define the calibrated airspeed Vc that is based on standard sea level values for p and a :
q c = po [ (1 + ((γ -1)/2) (Vc/ao) 2) γ /( γ -1)

- 1]
q c = po [ (1 + 0.2 (Vc/ao) ) 2 3.5
- 1]
Vc = ao { 5 [ (q c/po + 1) 0.2857
– 1]} 0.5
32
 Vc is equal to V under SL/ISA conditions
 Flight at constant calibrated airspeed is equivalent to flight at constant q c
 q c is close to q during take-off and landing operations at low altitudes (difference is < 2 % typically)
 For a given weight, flight at constant Vc at low altitudes ensures that CL and angle-of-attack are nearly
constant even if altitude or air density changes
• A simple means to maintain a satisfactory margin to the stall
• It would not be the case during flight at constant true airspeed
33
(qc-q)/qc versus Vc
16
14
40,000 ft
(qc-q)/qc (%)
12
10 30,000 ft
8 20,000 ft
6 10,000 ft
4
SL
2
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Vc
34
Airspeed – Equivalent airspeed
 The equivalent airspeed, Ve, is equal to Vc corrected for adiabatic compressible flow for the particular altitude
 Ve, is based on SL ISA density ρ o
 Ve = { [2γ /(γ -1)] (p/ρ o) [(qc/p + 1) ( γ -1)/ γ

–1]}0.5
• Ve from above equation is in ft/sec with pressures in lb/ft2 and ρ o in slugs/ft3
 Equivalent airspeed is a function of qc and p
 Flight at constant Ve is equivalent to flight at constant q
 Ve can be defined as the answer to : How fast do I have to travel in SL ISA air to have the same q that I currently have?
0.5 ρ o Ve 2 = 0.5 ρ V2
Ve = V σ 0.5
True airspeed V is a function of Ve (I.e. qc and p) and σ
35
Airspeed – Equivalent airspeed (Cont’d)
 Ve is not used operationally to fly the aircraft but it is sometimes used for low speed
performance calculations as it results in simpler calculations
• q = Ve 2 / 295.37 (Ve in knots, q in lb/ft2)

• CL = 295.37 L / (Ve 2 S) (Ve in knots)
 Ve = Vc - ∆ Vc
∀ ∆ Vc is the compressibility correction
∀ ∆ Vc is always positive because qc is greater than q when compressibility effects are present
∀ ∆ Vc is equal to 0 at SL (i.e. Ve = Vc at SL)
∀ ∆ Vc is less than 1 knot for take-off and landing operations (i.e. altitude less than 10,000 ft and Vc less
than 200 knots
∀ ∆ Vc ranges between 10-20 knots for typical cruise conditions
 Relationship between ∆ Vc , Vc and pressure altitude is presented graphically on the next page
36
Airspeed – Equivalent airspeed (Cont’d)
Delta Vc versus Vc
20
40,000 ft
15
30,000 ft
Delta Vc
10 20,000 ft
10,000 ft
5
SL
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Vc
37
Airspeed – Indicated airspeed
 The actual airspeed displayed to the pilot is the indicated airspeed, VI, or IAS
 VI, is essentially equal to Vc but contains inherent system errors :
• Instrument error ∆ Vi (error in instrument calibration)

• Position error ∆ Vp (error due to the fact that p and pT are not equal to free stream values, will be detailed
later)
VI = Vc - ∆ Vp - ∆ Vi
Vc = VI + ∆ V p + ∆ Vi
Note : ∆ Vi is assumed to be zero in our analyses
38
Mach number
 The compressible Bernoulli equation is also the basis for calibrating the
Mach number displayed to the pilot (Mach meter)
pT - p = q c = p [ (1 + ((γ -1)/2) (V/a) 2) γ /( γ -1) - 1]
pT - p = q c = p [ (1 + ((γ -1)/2) M 2) γ /( γ -1)
- 1]
M = { (2/(γ -1)) [ ( 1 + q c/p )(γ -1)/ γ

- 1 ] } 0.5
 M = f (q c , p)
 Many aerodynamic effects are function of M
 M is independent of static temperature at a given pressure altitude and

calibrated airspeed
39
Altitude
 As discussed previously, the altimeter measures static
pressure and converts it into an altitude based on equations
for the standard atmosphere
 The altimeter is connected to the static pressure source and

picks up any existing position error ∆ hp (error in instrument
calibration, pressure leak, …)
• Position error ∆ hp will be detailed later
 hp = hpI + ∆ hp
40
Temperature
 The free air temperature indicator is very important since the indicated
temperature has two specific uses associated with performance
• Determination of true air speed V

• Determination of engine pressure ratio (EPR) or engine fan speed (N1) for the
required thrust settings
 Free air temperature gages are usually operated by an electrical resistance

thermometer probe located on the forward portion of the fuselage
41
Temperature (Cont’d)
 Because of the adiabatic temperature rise due to compressibility, the
thermometer probe picks up a temperature reading higher than the static
temperature
Tt / T = 1 + ((γ -1)/2) M2 = 1 + 0.2 M2
 The equation relating total and static temperatures must be modified to

include a temperature probe recovery factor, K, to account for the fact
that the probe may not be able to recover the full temperature rise
Tt =T ( 1 + 0.2 K M2)
42
 The probe recovery factor must be determined by flight testing and its value is normally
very close to 1.0
• Aircraft must be flown at constant altitude in a stable air mass with constant temperature
• Aircraft is stabilized at various Mach numbers over the operational speed range
• For each stabilized test point, indicated total temperature (TTI ) and Mach number (M) are recorded
• K can be determined by plotting 1/Tt as a function of M / Tt
2
• Slope of fitted test points is equal to –0.2 K or – K/5

• Example is presented on the next page
43
Determination of temperature probe recovery factor K
44
Relationship between flight parameters
To summarize, all of the data parameters that can be derived
Pitot-static and temperature probes are defined in terms of qc, p
and T
hp = = f (p)
Vc = ao { 5 [(qc/po + 1) 0.2857 – 1]} 0.5 = f (qc)
Ve = { 7 (p/ρ o) [(qc/p + 1) 0.2857 –1]}0.5 = f (qc,p)
V = a { 5 [ (q c/p + 1) 0.2857 – 1]} 0.5 = f (qc,p,a or T)
M = { 5 [ (qc/p + 1)0.2857 - 1] } 0.5 = f (qc,p)
Be careful with units!

45
Angle of attack
 Aircraft angle of attack (AOA) is normally measured with vane-type AOA transmitters that can be located on the fuselage,
on the wing or on a boom
 AOA vanes provide AOA information to stall warning / protection systems, flight controls and flight displays
 AOA vanes are calibrated on prototype aircraft in order to determine the relation between local AOA at the vane location
and aircraft AOA, normally defined relative to the fuselage longitudinal axis
46
Typical Pitot-Static System
47
Position errors
 Total and static pressures sensed by the Pitot-static system may
not be equal to free stream values for various reasons
 Position errors are inaccuracies in static and/or total pressures
that result in inaccurate airspeed and altitude indications unless
corrections are applied
48
Position errors (Cont’d)
Position errors for total and static pressures are defined in terms of pressure coefficients

Static pressure coefficient Cp


Cp = (plocal – p)/qic
Where plocal = local static pressure

p = free stream static pressure
qic = indicated impact pressure (ptlocal - plocal )
ptlocal = local total pressure
Total pressure coefficient Cpt

 Cpt = (ptlocal – pt)/qic
Where pt = free stream total pressure
49
 Total pressure can be measured accurately as long as the lips of the Pitot-static probe are very sharp and the local AOA
at the probe is less than approximately 25 degrees
 Measurement of free stream static is much more difficult
 Static pressure varies significantly along the fuselage
 Only a few locations where Cp is equal to zero and these locations change with Mach number and AOA
 It is not possible to find one location on the aircraft where plocal = p under all flight conditions
50
51
Aircraft manufacturers normally install Pitot-static probes where pressure variation is minimum for most normal flight conditions (e.g. Point 2 on

figure presented on last page)
Fuselage mounted flush static ports can also be used in combination with a Pitot probe but flush static ports are more sensitive to skin waviness effects
•
Other considerations must also be taken into account in order to select Pitot-static probe location

Interference with stall vanes, temperature probe, ice detectors, doors, …
•
Skin waviness effects : airframe to airframe variations may be more important in some areas
•
Calibrations are done on prototype aircraft to determine the position error (static pressure coefficient Cp) for all flight conditions

52
• Trailing cone is used to measure reference free stream static pressure

• Noseboom is used to measure reference total pressure
• Reference pressures are compared with ship pressure to determine Cp
• Calibrated pacer aircraft can also be used to determine position error
53
 Total pressure errors are normally negligible

• Errors are normally only a concern at high AOA (stall) if probes are properly
located on the airplane
 Static pressure errors are affected by different parameters depending on

the speed regime
• Low speed regime (M < 0.3): Cp is typically only a function of AOA or CLI ,
where CLI = (295.37*NZ*W) / (VKIAS^2*S)
• High speed regime (M > 0.3): Cp is typically a function of M but AOA effects
may also be present
 Cp can be converted in airspeed, altitude and Mach number errors (∆ Vp ,

∆ hp and ∆ Mp)
54
 Typical problem : Determine Vc and hp knowing Cp, indicated airspeed VI and indicated pressure altitude hpI
qic is determined from VI :

•
q ic = po [ (1 + 0.2 (VI/ao) 2) 3.5 - 1]
plocal is determined from hpI :

•
For hpI < 36,089, plocal = po(1 - 6.87535 x 10-6 hpI )5.2559
Since Cp qic = plocal – p, p = plocal – Cp qic

•
∀ δ = p/po
hp = (1 - δ 1/5.2559
)/6.87535 x 10-6
qc = qic + Cp qic
•
Vc = ao { 5 [ (q c/po + 1) 0.2857 – 1]} 0.5
55
 Example : Errors associated with Cp = -0.01 for hpI = 5000 ft
VI hp ∆ hp Vc
∆ Vp
100 kts 4993 ft - 7 ft 99.5 kts -0.5 kts
200 kts 4977 ft - 23 ft 199.0 kts -1.0 kts
300 kts 4952 ft - 48 ft 298.6 kts -1.4 kts
56
 Static pressure error can either be compensated aerodynamically or electronically in
order to minimize errors in indicated airspeed and altitude values
• Design of the pitot-static probe can be modified to compensate (in part) the
position error (aerodynamic compensation)
• A Static Source Error Correction (SSEC) can be programmed in the Air Data
Computer (ADC) to compensate the position error (electronic compensation)
• Electronic compensation is used to compensate position error on most modern
aircraft
• SSEC is typically a function of Mach number, AOA and flap position
57
 Residual altitude and airspeed errors, once compensation is applied, must
be presented in the AFM
 FAR/JAR 25 defines limits for airspeed (FAR 25.1323) and altitude (FAR
25.1325) errors
Altitude error at SL must not exceed 30 ft per 100 kts

Altitude error at SL must not exceed 30 ft at speeds < 100 kts
58
Airspeed error must not exceed 3 knots per 100 knots

Airspeed error must not exceed 5 knots at speeds < 166 knots
59

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Aircraft Performance

• (valid for incompressible flow only)

 Tube is aligned with the flow

∀ γ = ratio of specific heats (constant pressure and constant volume)

ao is the speed of sound under SL ISA conditions (T= 15oC)

 Air moving at speeds below 200 knots may be treated as an

• Since γ = 1.4 for air, equations can be rewritten as

3.5 p/ρ + V2/2 = constant

TT / T = 1 + ((γ -1)/2) M 2 = 1 + 0.2 M 2

 From pT/p = (ρ T / ρ ) (TT / T ) and pT/p = (ρ T /ρ )γ :

ρ T / ρ = (1 + ((γ -1)/2) M 2) 1/( γ -1)

pT/p = (1 + ((γ -1)/2) M 2) γ /( γ -1)

• Wingspan (b) is the tip to tip dimension of the wing

• Aspect ratio (AR) of a wing is defined as

Lift (L) is perpendicular to the freestream velocity

CL is the lift coefficient, CL = L / (qS) , dimensionless

S is the wing area (ft2)

q is the dynamic pressure (lb/ft2)

q = 0.5ρ V2 (q in lb/ft2 , ρ in slugs/ft3 and V in ft/sec )

 Under level flight conditions, L = W and CL can then expressed as

 Under level flight conditions, Nz = 1.0 (I.e. 1 g)

 A more general equation defining CL can be introduced

CD is the drag coefficient, dimensionless

•Linear portion of lift curve is where the aircraft normally

• CL / CD = L / D = Lift to drag ratio

Drag increment due to deflection of spoilers – ∆ CDSP

Drag increment due to landing gear - ∆ CDLG

Deployment of leading edge and trailing edge high-lift devices

Effect of slat on air flow

Effect of flaps and slats

Lift and drag

 The objective of this section is to describe :

• The physical principles normally used for these parameters

 V has only limited applications operationally.

 Other airspeeds must be defined : Calibrated airspeed

Typical Pitot-static probe

pT - p = q c = p [ (1 + ((γ -1)/2) (V/a) 2) γ /( γ -1)

q c = po [ (1 + ((γ -1)/2) (Vc/ao) 2) γ /( γ -1)

 Flight at constant calibrated airspeed is equivalent to flight at constant q c

 Ve, is based on SL ISA density ρ o

 Ve = { [2γ /(γ -1)] (p/ρ o) [(qc/p + 1) ( γ -1)/ γ

 Equivalent airspeed is a function of qc and p

 Flight at constant Ve is equivalent to flight at constant q

True airspeed V is a function of Ve (I.e. qc and p) and σ

• q = Ve 2 / 295.37 (Ve in knots, q in lb/ft2)

 VI, is essentially equal to Vc but contains inherent system errors :

• Instrument error ∆ Vi (error in instrument calibration)

Note : ∆ Vi is assumed to be zero in our analyses

M = { (2/(γ -1)) [ ( 1 + q c/p )(γ -1)/ γ

 Many aerodynamic effects are function of M

 M is independent of static temperature at a given pressure altitude and

 The altimeter is connected to the static pressure source and

• Determination of true air speed V

 Free air temperature gages are usually operated by an electrical resistance

Tt / T = 1 + ((γ -1)/2) M2 = 1 + 0.2 M2

 The equation relating total and static temperatures must be modified to

• Slope of fitted test points is equal to –0.2 K or – K/5

Determination of temperature probe recovery factor K

Vc = ao { 5 [(qc/po + 1) 0.2857 – 1]} 0.5 = f (qc)

Ve = { 7 (p/ρ o) [(qc/p + 1) 0.2857 –1]}0.5 = f (qc,p)

V = a { 5 [ (q c/p + 1) 0.2857 – 1]} 0.5 = f (qc,p,a or T)

M = { 5 [ (qc/p + 1)0.2857 - 1] } 0.5 = f (qc,p)

Be careful with units!

Static pressure coefficient Cp