Gendered adaptations to climate change: The case of rice farming communities in the Philippines

Gerlie T. Tatlonghari
Phd Candidate, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia Affliate PhD Scholar, IRRI, College, Laguna, Philippines

Pre-submission Seminar/SSD Seminar Series 5 July 2013

What is Climate Change?

Climate Change is a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability over comparable time periods - The United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC)

Climate change in the Philippines

Philippines is in the top 10 countries worldwide at risk for both climate change and disasters Longer dry periods, but heavier rains during wet season Typhoons and floods are the two highest disaster categories

Flooding increased by 200 per cent (from 14 to 42 storms), while storm events increased by 42 per cent from 1970 to 2010

Rice farming in the Philippines

Rice is staple food for 90% of the Filipinos Around 1.5M Filipinos depend on rice industry as means of livelihoods Ranked 8th in the top rice-consuming countries and in the top rice-producing countries worldwide in 2012

Effects of climate variability to rice production

For the past 10 years, an average of 3% or 0.5 M MT of rice production was lost due to damages brought about by floods and typhoons 82.4% of the rice losses in the Philippines were attributed to typhoons, floods and drought from 1970-1990

Adaptation to Climate Change

Adaptation is understood as a modification of behaviour that can either alleviate adverse impacts or open new opportunities in response to observed or expected changes in climate and associated extreme weather events (Adger, et al. 2004; Adger, et al. 2007; Nielsen & Reenberg 2010). Climate change responses have the potential to challenge existing gender power imbalances and, by doing so, can contribute to the realisation of greater gender equality and womens rights they can play a transformative role. There are unique opportunities for the newly emerging climate change-focused institutions and processes to take a genderaware approach that contributes to gender and social transformation. (Skinner, 2011:4)

Adaptation to Climate Change

Adaptation strategies are usually based on their roles and gender norms (Carr, 2008) Women are expected to be more vulnerable to climate change

Because of gendered norms, ascribed roles, inequalities in the access to and control of resources, and their low participation in decisionmaking, women are more vulnerable vis--vis to men before, during and after disaster (Brody et al 2008; Lambrou and Piana 2006; Carvajal, 2008; Peralta, 2009)

Adaptation to Climate Change

However, adaptations to climatic events can open up new opportunities and may alter traditional gender roles
Gender division of labour temporarily shifted (Enarson, 2000) Violated gender based segregation and seclusion ( Sultana, 2010) Women learned to negotiate for their entitlements with their partners, relatives and authorities (Dalisay, 2008) Women may gain confidence in dealing with their socio-cultural inequalities they face daily (Lambrou and Nelson, 2010)

Research questions of the study

How gendered adaptations practices are accepted and reproduced in a given community amidst climate uncertainty? Sub-questions: 1. Do men and women respond differently to climatic events based on their gender roles, identity and relations? 2. How do traditional gender practices exacerbated gender inequalities and relate to womens future adaptation? 3. Can natural disasters like flooding provide an opportunity to empower women by changing gender practices? 4. Can current power relations within the household and community be changed through adaptation strategies? 5. What are the factors that can limit and facilitate womens abilities to change their situation and position as they respond to climate change?

Location of the study

Nueva Ecija province: rice granary of the Philippines, 2nd in terms of area susceptible to flooding San Antonio municipality: catch basin of water from neighboring municipalities, 10 out of 16 villages are low-lying and prone to flooding Papaya and Cama Juan: two most affected villages in San Antonio Flooding usually occurs during the month of July, September to November

Conceptual Framework

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study

Methodology

Figure 2. Mixed-method sequential design used to study the rice farming communities in Nueva Ecija, Philippines

Main Findings of the Study

Climate change has led to changes in frequency, intensity, duration of severe flooding events
Table 1. Observed changes in climate variability and flood occurrence for the last 20 years in two rice farming villages by gender, San Antonio, Nueva Ecija, Philippines, 2011
Change Climate variability Temperature Rainfall Extreme weather events Flood occurrence Frequency of flooding Intensity of flooding Duration of flooding Other observed changes
** significant difference at 5%

Papaya Male Female (n = 100) (n = 100)

2test

Cama Juan Male Female (n = 101) (n = 101)

2test

26 46
28

20 51
29

1.058

21 59
20

21 54
25

0.773

3 84 12 1

3 87 10

1.234

30 32 38 1

29 50 20 2

9.888 **

Climate Change is a reality on the ground

We are aware of the climate change. We even felt the wrath of the extreme climatic variability in our location. Farm woman #15 We dont have any choice but to still go to our farm and work. We are obliged to do so even if we vomit due to extreme heat. If we cant bear the heat, we will just look for a shade and rest for awhile. Women in Cama Juan focus group #4 Our climate is not the same anymore. Unlike before when you say wet season, it is only wet season. But now, when it is dry season, its raining and with typhoon. In old days, we just have two seasons, according to elderly folks, the climate is like an old folks, it has been forgetful [Sabi nga matatanda, ang panahon ngayon ay parang matanda, ulyanin na]. Woman in Papaya focus group #1

Flooding has devastating consequences for rice farming communities

Table 2. Observed changes in climate variability and flood occurrence for the last 20 years in two rice farming villages by gender, San Antonio, Nueva Ecija, Philippines, 2011
Parameter Normal year Wet season Dry season Flood year Wet season Dry season 2.72 13,524 5.15 63,399 2.43 13,568 5.58 78,283 2.58 13,546 5.36 70,878 t-test (p-value) Wet season Dry season 0.620 0.000 *** 0.000 *** 0.000 *** 0.079 * 0.000 *** 0.000 *** 0.000 *** 0.110 0.000 *** 0.000 *** 0.000 *** 0.832 0.612 0.240 0.935 0.622 0.472 0.152 0.508 0.678 0.766 0.641 0.647

Papaya Area (ha) 2.13 2.74 2.16 Production (kg) 6,015 13,340 1,376 Yield (t/ha) 2.97 4.80 0.69 Income (Php) a 21,543 63,101 -5,021 Cama Juan Area (ha) 1.74 2.45 1.85 Production (kg) 5,307 13,937 2,492 Yield (t/ha) 2.95 5.77 1.35 Income (Php)a 18,306 81,171 1,637 All Area (ha) 1.93 2.59 2.00 Production (kg) 5,659 13,640 1,937 Yield (t/ha) 2.96 5.28 1.02 Income (Php)a 19,916 72,181 -1,676 *significant at 10%, **significant at 5%, ***significant at 10% a $1 = P42.93

Existing gender practices cause the differential vulnerabilities of men and women to climate change
Table 3. Access to and control over resources of men and women in two rice farming villages in Nueva Ecija, Philippines during flooding period, 2011
Papaya Indicators Average years in school Average years in farming Land ownership (%) Who decides on: What varieties to grow (%) Livestock management (%) Who has rural employment Off-farm labor (%) Non-farm labor (%) Who has access to extension services (%) Who acquired loans (%) Who repaid loans (%) Who received support (e.g. relief goods) (%) 45 11 24 45 51 86 22 6 17 34 19 88 53 12 31 38 48 88 28 16 31 46 16 95 73 42 2 23 80 66 1 54 Male Female Cama Juan Male Female

(n = 100)
7 24 15

(n = 100)
7 10 2

(n = 101)
7 23 22

(n = 101)
8 11 2

Gendered inequalities are exacerbated during climate change

The decrease in the resources and assets of the farming households led to household members, particularly women to become vulnerable It was observed that more men than women took action during severe flooding The loss of livelihood forced men and women to look for alternative income but women, due to their traditional gender roles, were expected to stay in the house to look after the elderly and the young children, thus they became more dependent on their men for survival. If only I would think of myself, I really want to have extra income. If only I will decide for myself, I really like it [to work] since I am still young and strong. But I have children to look after. If I can find a job where I can work as a sewer, I know how to sew, but my husband doesnt like it because my mother is too old already and no one will take care of my kids. Farm woman #18

Severe flooding has differential impacts on male and female farmers

Perceived impacts of severe flooding on men: Increase pressure to acquire loan (34%)* Increase pressure to provide food for the family (27%) Increase pressure to seek other income source (10%) Perceived impacts of severe flooding on women: Increase pressure to acquire loans (20%)** More stressed/anxious (18%) Increase work load (18%)**
*- Wilcoxon Signed-rank test: significant difference in perception among Cama Juan male and female farmers **- Wilcoxon Signed-rank test: significant difference in perception among Papaya male and female farmers

Severe flooding has differential impacts on male and female farmers

We dont really mind about the weather/climate. Our priority is to survive and have something to eat. So even the machine/engine is already submerged in flood water, we will still work so to have something to eat. Plus the fact that, we have obligation to pay our loan on a weekly basis. We really cant just stop and do nothing. Man in Cama Juan focus group #5 My worst experience was when the money lender took away all the paddy which I harvested because I couldnt pay my loan. I cried and cried due to lost income. In this village the interest rate is high. If you borrow 8 cavans [456 kilos equivalent to AUD156.00], you need to pay the money lender three times [the borrowed amount]. Farm woman #15 All the families are very sad because we dont have anything to eat. You are fortunate if you have stock food in your house but if you dont have, you are pitiful. You just have to survive by drinking warm water. Woman in Papaya focus group #1

Male and female farmers adapt to extreme flooding based on their roles and relations

Men as provider and farmer adjust their rice farming practices to adapt to frequent flooding such as: Build higher dikes around the plot Adjust rice planting: ahead or delay based on the timing of flooding Resow when seedling are destroyed Replant when there is still enough seedlings Delay harvesting if they know that flooding is about to come

Women were expected to fit their expectations and activities around men
When my husband is still alive, I used to help him in every farm work. It was only operating hand tractor that I did not do. Even I already have rashes all over my body, it was just so itchy but I just endure it since Im a farmers wife. .. As of now, my son and I live together. So now, my son takes the farming responsibility and makes decision for that matter ... Its like he has his own family now. We exchange position I am now the daughter and he will be the father. Farm woman #25 We acquire loans, our husbands just tell us the amount. There are husbands who are too shy to ask for loan/money. Women are used to that kind of system, wherein we are the one who ask or borrow money. Woman in Cama Juan focus group #4

Men and women learn to accept and take on new roles in response to extreme flooding as part of their adaptation to climate change
From farmers wife to farm manager
Mechanization External support Membership in farmers associations Long-term experience in farming Education

From budget keepers to entrepreneurs From supporters to decision-makers

To plant or not to plant during the wet season Where and how much to borrow as capital for rice farming What other non-farm income sources they should engage in How much rice to store for food consumption for the whole year.

Alteration of gender roles and relations has significant impacts particularly for women
What happened was, people listen to you because of your knowledge, you serve as example to your husband or your brother. He [brother] listens, he follows what I said. Farm woman #11 I applied what I have learned in farmers meetings and training activities in managing our 11 hectare farm land, which we mortgaged. In just one harvest, I was able to recover our fields we were forced to mortgage. As a consequence my husband has learned to recognise my skills. He told me Abay [referred to as partner], I entrust to you our farm land ... and I was able to prove to them [husbands relatives] that I am a farmer. Farm woman #15

Men learning to take on traditional womens roles

Table 4. Changes in mens and womens involvement in reproductive activities due to severe flood, Nueva Ecija, Philippines, 2011
Male Activities Involvement Increase Decrease Involvement Female Increase Decrease

Reproductive activities Child rearing

Cleaning the house Washing the clothes Cooking

95
74 91 83 91 29 62 39 14 3 2 3 24

100
84 100 99 100 36 79 64 10 3 4 5 38

In term of doing household chores, it is now improving, men are helping out. Like my husband, early in the morning he would be the one to sweep the floor. Now, its not based on gender, whats for women or for men, but who is available. Like my son, my neighbours see him, doing the laundry. Men are also now doing the marketing. Farm woman #15

Conclusions
Climate change is now a reality on the ground Extreme weather events have resulted in loss of livelihood and have escalated debt burdens that have long-term welfare consequences for farming households Differences in climate change perceptions, vulnerabilities and adaptation to climate change of men and women results in differences in the impacts of climate change Men and women adapt to flooding according to traditional roles and gender relations Women realize the need to alter their existing gender roles and relations Climate change was the necessary condition but not a sufficient condition for women to achieve radical change Women cannot affect social change on their own just by thinking and acting differently. There a whole lot of change at state and institutional levels required

The first step is to measure whatever can be easily measured. This is ok as far as it goes. The second step is to disregard that which cant be measured. . . . This is artificial and misleading. The third step is to presume that what cant be measured easily is not very important. This is blindness. The fourth step is to say that what cant be easily measured really doesnt exist. This is suicide.- Adam Smith (cited in Supermoney 1972: 290)

Related Articles
Tatlonghari, G. and T. Paris. 2013. Gendered adaptations to climate change: A case study from the Philippines In Research, Action and Policy: Addressing the Gendered Impacts of Climate Change", Margaret Alston and Kerri Whittenbury (Editors). Springer.

Tatlonghari, G. Paris, T. and D. Villanueva. 2012. Gendered vulnerabilities and adaptation to climate change: the experience of rice farmers of Nueva Ecija, Philippines. Paper presented at the Crop Science Society of the Philippines Conference, A&A Hotel, Puerto Princesa, Palawan, 16-21 April, 2012.

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Brody, A, Demetriades, J & Esplen, E 2008, Gender and Climate Change: Mapping the Linkages. A Scoping Study on Knowledge and Gaps, BRIDGE, Brighton. Carr, E 2008, 'Between structure and agency: livelihoods and adaptation in Ghana's Central Region', Global Environmental Change, vol. 18, pp. 689-99.
Carvajal-Escobar, Y, Quintero-Angel, M & Garcia-Vargas, M 2008, 'Women's role in adapting to climate change and variability', Advances in Geosciences, vol. 14, pp. 277-80. Dalisay, S 2008, 'Survival strategies to overcome inaagosto and nordeste in two coastal communities in Batangas and Mindoro, the Philippines', Disaster Prevention and Management, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 373-82 EM-DAT 2011, The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database, Universit Catholique de Louvain, August 30, 2011, <http://www.emdat.be/>. Enarson, E 2000, Gender and natural disasters, Recovery and Construction Department, International Labor Organization, Geneva. IFAD 2009, Rural Poverty in the Philippines, IFAD, viewed July 14, 2010 2010, <http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/country/home/tags/philippines>.

References:
Lambrou, Y & Nelson, S 2010, Farmers in a changing climate does gender matter? , Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Lambrou, Y & Piana, G 2006, 'Gender: The missing component of the response to climate change', FAO, Rome.

Nielsen, J & Reenberg, A 2010, 'Cultural barriers to climate change adaptation: A case study from Northern Burkina Faso', Global Environmental Change, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 142-52.
Peralta, A 2009, Financing for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation in the Philippines, May 5, 2010, <http://www.realityofaid.org/userfiles/publications/roareport_6badc3e72d.pdf>. Skinner, E 2011, Gender and climate change: Overview report, Institute of Development Studies. Smith, Adam. 1972. Supermoney. New York: Random House. Sultana, F 2010, 'Living in hazardous waterscapes: Gendered vulnerabilities and experiences of floods and disasters', Environmental Hazards, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 43-53. Worldbank 2010, A strategic approach to climate change in the Philippines, Sustainable Development Department East Asia & Pacific Region World Bank May 11, 2010, <http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/PHCCSNJan27final.pdf>.