Boundary Layer Theory

When a real fluid past a solid boundary, a

layer of fluid which comes in contact with
the boundary surface adheres to it on
account of viscosity. Since this layer of
fluid can not slip away from the boundary
surface it attains the same velocity as that of
the boundary.
This is called no slip condition.
Boundary Layers
As a fluid flows over a body, the no-slip condition ensures
that the fluid next to the boundary is subject to large shear. A
pipe is enclosed, so the fluid is fully bounded, but in an open
flow at what distance away from the boundary can we begin
to ignore this shear?

There are three main definitions of boundary layer thickness:
1. 99% thickness
2. Displacement thickness
3. Momentum thickness

Definition of a Fluid
a fluid, such as water or air, deforms
continuously when acted on by shearing
stresses of any magnitude.

Water
Oil
Air
Why isnt steel a fluid?
Viscosity
The viscosity is the property of fluid by
virtue of which a fluid it offers resistance to
deformation under the influence of a shear
force.
It offers resistance to the movement of one
layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of
fluid.
Fluid Deformation between
Parallel Plates
Side view
Force F causes the top plate to have velocity U.
What other parameters control how much force is
required to get a desired velocity?
Distance between plates (b)
Area of plates (A)
F
b
U
Viscosity!
Shear Stress
change in velocity with respect to distance
A
F
= t
(

2
m
N
b
U
t =
b
U
dy
du
t =
b
AU
F =
AU
Ft
=
(

2
m
s N
dimension of
(

s
1
Tangential force per unit area
Rate of angular deformation
rate of shear
Fluid classification by response
to shear stress
Newtonian
Ideal Fluid
Ideal plastic
Newtonian
Ideal Fluid
Ideal plastic
Shear stress t
R
a
t
e

o
f

d
e
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

d
y

d
u


dy
du
t =
1
Fluid Newtons law
of viscosity
Non- Newtonian
fluids
Do not obey
The viscosity of the non-Newtonian fluid is dependent on the
velocity gradient as well as the condition of the fluid.

Newtonian Fluids
a linear relationship between shear stress and the velocity gradient (rate
of shear),
the slope is constant
the viscosity is constant

non-Newtonian fluids
slope of the curves for non-Newtonian fluids varies
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian
Fluid


If the gradient m is constant, the fluid is termed as Newtonian fluid.
Otherwise, it is known as non-Newtonian fluid. Fig. 1.5 shows
several Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.
Fluid Viscosity
Examples of highly viscous fluids
______________________
Fundamental mechanisms
Gases - transfer of molecular momentum
Viscosity __________ as temperature increases.
Viscosity __________ as pressure increases.
Liquids - cohesion and momentum transfer
Viscosity decreases as temperature increases.
Relatively independent of pressure (incompressible)
molasses, tar, 20w-50 oil
increases
_______
increases
Role of Viscosity
Statics
Fluids at rest have no relative motion between
layers of fluid and thus du/dy = 0
Therefore the shear stress is _____ and is
independent of the fluid viscosity
Flows
Fluid viscosity is very important when the fluid
is moving
zero
Dynamic and Kinematic
Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity (__) is a fluid property
obtained by dividing the dynamic viscosity
(__) by the fluid density

v =
(

=
3
m
kg
s m
kg
v
(

2
m
s N

| |
(

=
2
s
m kg
N
[m
2
/s]
Connection to Reynolds number!
m
n
Re
VD r
m
=
Thickness of Boundary Layer
Velocity within the boundary layer
increases from zero at the boundary surface
to the velocity of the main stream
asymptotically
That distance from the boundary surface in
which the velocity reaches 99% of the
velocity of the main stream.
Displacement Thickness
The distance by which the boundary surface
would have to be displaced outwards so that
the actual discharge deficit would be same
as that of an ideal (or frictionless) fluid past
the displaced boundary.
Displacement thickness
There is a reduction in the flow
rate due to the presence of the
boundary layer
This is equivalent to having a
theoretical boundary layer with
zero flow
y
u
y
u
U
U
o
d

Displacement thickness
}

|
.
|

\
|
=
0
*
dy
U
u
1
The areas under each curve are defined as being equal:
( )
}

=
0
dy u U q and
Equating these gives the equation for the displacement
thickness:
U q
*
=
Momentum Thickness
The distance from the actual boundary
surface such that the momentum flux
corresponding to the main stream velocity
V through this distance is equal to the
deficiency or loss in momentum due to the
boundary layer formation.
Momentum thickness
U m
2
=
-
In the boundary layer, the fluid loses momentum, so
imagining an equivalent layer of lost momentum:
( )
}

-
=
0
dy u U u m and
Equating these gives the equation for the momentum
thickness:
}

|
.
|

\
|
=
0
dy
U
u
1
U
u

99% Thickness
U
U is the free-stream velocity
o(x)
x
y
o(x) is the boundary layer thickness when u(y) ==0.99U
Flat Plate: Parallel to Flow
U
x
y
U
U
U
o
t
Why is shear maximum at the leading edge of
the plate?
boundary
layer
thickness
shear
du
dy
is maximum
Factors Affecting the Thickness of
BL
BLT increases as the distance from the leading edge
increases
BLT decreases with the increase in the velocity of flow of
approaching stream fluid
Greater is the kinematic viscosity, greater is the BLT
Considerably affected by the pressure gradient in the
direction of flow
If pressure gradient is ve in the case of converging flow,
boundary layer growth is retarded because the resulting
pressure force acts in the direction of flow and it
accelerates the retarded flow in the BL.
Boundary Layer Concepts
Two flow regimes
Laminar boundary layer
Turbulent boundary layer
with laminar sub-layer
Calculations of
boundary layer thickness
Shear (as a function of location on the surface)
Drag (by integrating the shear over the entire surface)

Force and momentum in fluid
mechanics - refresher
Newtons laws still apply. Consider a stream tube:
u
1
,A
1
q
1
=u
1
A
1
u
2
,A
2
q
2
=u
2
A
2
mass entering in time, t, is u
1
A
1
t
momentum entering in time, t, is m
1
= (u
1
A
1
t)u
1

momentum leaving in time, t, is m
2
= (u
2
A
2
t)u
2
Impulse = momentum change, F = (m
2
m
1
)/ t = (u
2
2
A
2
-u
1
2
A
1
)
The von Karman Integral
Equation (VKI)
A
B
C
D
Flow enters on AB and BC, and leaves on CD
o
1
o
2

o
2
-

o
1
Ax
U
u
1
(y)
u
2
(y)
VKI
The momentum change between entering and leaving the control volume
is equal to the shear force on the surface:
( )
1 2
2

0
2
1

0
2
2 0
U dy u dy u x
1 2
= A
} }
(CD) (AB)
(BC)
By conservation of fluid mass, any fluid entering the control volume must
also leave, therefore
} }
=
1 2
0
1
0
2 1 2
) (
o o
o o dy u dy u U
( ) ( )
} }
= A
1 2

0
1
2
1

0
2
2
2 0
dy Uu u dy Uu u x
Force on
fluid
VKI
dx
d
V
2
0
=
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
}

0
2
0
dy Uu u d dx
As Ax 0, the two integrals on the right become closer and
the equation may be written as a differential:
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
}

0
2
0
dy
U
u
1
U
u
dx
d
U
The integral is the definition of the momentum thickness, so
if V(x)
dx
dV
V
*
+
Laminar boundary layer growth
t + dt
t
dy
x
y
Boundary layer => Inertia is of the same magnitude as Viscosity
a) Inertia Force: a particle entering the b.l. will be slowed from a velocity
U to near zero in time, t. giving force F
I
V/t. But u=x/t => t l/V
where V is the characteristic velocity and l the characteristic length in the
x direction.
Hence F
I
V
2
/l
b) Viscous force: F

ct/cy c
2
u/cy
2
V/o
2
since V is the characteristic velocity and o the characteristic length in the y
direction
o(x)
Laminar boundary layer growth
Comparing these gives:
V

So the boundary layer grows according to

l
Alternatively, dividing through by l, the non-dimensionalised
boundary layer growth is given by:
l
R
l
1

Note the new Reynolds number

characteristic velocity and
characteristic length

V l l
R
l
= =
) (
V

5 Blasius
l
=
V
2
/l VU/o
2
Boundary layer growth
Length Reynolds Number

Ul
R
l
=
l
U
Flow at a pipe entry
l
U
d

If the b.l. meet while the flow is still laminar the flow in the pipe will be laminar
If the b.l. goes turbulent before they meet, then the flow in the pipe will be
turbulent
Length Reynolds number and
Pipe Reynolds number
The critical Reynolds number for flow along a surface is R
l
=3.2*10
5

In a pipe, the Reynolds number is given by

d u
m
= Re
Considering a pipe as two boundary layers meeting, d=2a=2o
and from above
U

5
l
=
l
R
l l
10

U
10
U

10 .

U
Re = = =
The mean velocity in the pipe, u
m
, is comparable to the free-stream velocity, U
If R
l
=3.2*10
5
then Re=5657
Boundary layer equations for
laminar flow
These may be derived by solving the Navier-Stokes equations
in 2d.
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
dt
du
y
u
x
u

x
p

1
2
2
2
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c

Continuity
Momentum
U
Assume:
1. The b.l. is very thin compared to the length
2. Steady state
Boundary layer equations for
laminar flow
y
u
v
x
u
u
y
u

x
p

1
2
2
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c

This gives Prandtls b.l. equation:

rate of change of u with
x is small compared to y
Blasius produced a perfect solution of these equations valid
for 0<x<3.2*10
5
, and demonstrated the shape of the boundary
layer profile
Blasius Solution
0
5
0 1
u/U
y
'
y' f' (or u/U) f''
0 0 0.332
1 0.330 0.332
2 0.630 0.323
3 0.846 0.267
4 0.956 0.161
5 0.992 0.064
6 0.999 0.002
7 1.000 0.000
l
U
y ' y =
Laminar skin friction
The shear stress at the surface can be found by evaluating
the velocity gradient at the surface
0
0
y
u

c
c
=
The friction drag force along the surface is then found by
integrating over the length
dx
y
u
b F
0 y 0
f
=
} |
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
l
where b is the breadth of the surface
Laminar skin friction
From the Balsius solution, the gradient of the velocity
profile at y=0 yields the result:
0.5
x 0
R
x
U
0.332
|
.
|

\
|
=
The shear force can be obtained by integration along the surface
0.5
0
0 f
R 0.664Ub dx b F
l
l
= =
}
The frictional drag coefficient can then be calculated
2
1
R 33 . 1
AU
F
C
2
2
1
f
f

= =
l
Turbulent boundary layers
Turbulent Boundary layers are usually thicker than
laminar ones.
Velocity distribution in a turbulent boundary layer is
much more uniform than that in a laminar boundary layer
Large velocity change occur in a relatively small vertical
distance
Velocity gradient is steeper in a turbulent boundary layer

Turbulent boundary layers
The assumption is made that the flat plate approximates to
the behaviour in a pipe. The free stream velocity, V,
corresponds to the velocity at the centre, and the boundary
layer thickness, o, corresponds to the radius, R.
1/7 Power Law
From experiments, one possibility for the shape of the
boundary layer profile is
7
1

y
V
v
|
.
|

\
|
=
and measurements of the shear profile give
4
1
V

0.0225
2
0
|
.
|

\
|
= V
Turbulent boundary layers
Putting the expression for the 1/7 power law into the
equations for displacement and momentum thickness

72
7
,
8

m d
= =
o=99%
o
d

o
m

Turbulent boundary layers
becomes
dx
d
V
72
7

2
0
=
Equating this to the experimental value of shear stress:
4
1
U

0.0225
d
d
72
7
|
.
|

\
|
=
x
o
Integrating gives:
5
1

Ux
0.37x

|
.
|

\
|
=
The turbulent boundary grows as x
4/5
, faster than the
laminar boundary layer.
dx
d
V
2
0
=
Turbulent boundary layers
Momentum thickness
5
1

Ux
0.036x
72
7

|
.
|

\
|
= =
To find the total force, first find the shear stress
dx
d
V
2
0
=
then integrate over the plate length
m
2
0
m
2
0
0
U dx
dx
d
U dx F = = =
} }
l l
f
For a plate of length, l, and width b,
5
1

V
b 0.036 F
2

|
.
|

\
|
=
l
l V
f
5
1
0.074R C

=
l f
) 10 R 10 * 5 (
7 5
< <
l
Logarithmic boundary layer
From the mixing length hypothesis it can be shown that
the profile is logarithmic, but the experimental values
are different from those in a pipe

yV
ln 85 . 5 56 . 5
V
u
*
*
+ =
and the friction coefficient
( ) ( )
l
l
f
R
A
R log
455 . 0
C
58 . 2
=
(A is a correction constant if part of the b.l. is laminar)
) 10 R 0 (
9
< <
l
( ) ( )
rit
rit
58 . 2
rit
R
R
1.328
R log
455 . 0
c
c c
A
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Problem 1
A plate 0.50m X 0.20m has been placed
longitudinal in a stream of crude oil which flows
with undisturbed velocity of 6.0 m/sec. Given that
oil has a specific gravity of 0.9 and kinematic
viscosity of 1 stoke, calculate the boundary layer
thickness and shear stress at the middle of plate.
Also calculate friction drag on one side of the
plate.
Problem 3
A rectangular plate of length a and width b is
towed lengthwise through water with velocity Va
and subsequently widthwise with velocity Vb. The
boundary layer is laminar and the plate experiences
equal drag in both the cases. Determine the ratio of
velocities Va and Vb in terms of dimensions of the
plate.
Problem 4
A smooth rectangular plate 1.25 m wide x 25 m
long moves through water in the direction of its
length. The drag force on the two sides of the plate
is estimated to be 8500 N. Workout (i) velocity
with which the plate moves, (ii) boundary layer at
the trailing edge of the plate and (iii) whether
boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent?
If so determine distance at which the laminar
boundary layer existing at the leading edge
transforms into turbulent boundary layer. Assume
C
f
= 0.0018
Problem 5
Water flows down a smooth wide concrete apron into
a river. Assuming that a turbulent boundary layer
forms, estimate shear stress and the boundary layer
thickness 50 m downstream of the entrance to the
apron. Use following data:
Main stream velocity V = 7.0 m/sec
Dynamic viscosity

Velocity distribution is given by

Shear stress at the wall
kg/m.sec 10 1.14
-3
=
1/7

y
V
v
|
.
|

\
|
=
( )
1/4

2
0
Re
V 0.0225
=
Problem 6
Air moves over a flat plate with a uniform free
stream velocity of 10 m/sec. At a position 15 cm
away from the front edge of the plate, what is the
boundary layer thickness? Use a parabolic profile
in the boundary layer. For air, take kinematic
viscosity 1.5 x 10
-5
m2/sec and density of air 1.23
kg/m3.
Problem 7
A wind tunnel has a cross section at its inlet of 1.0
m by 1.0 m and a length of 10.0 m. Wind at
uniform velocity of 15 m/sec enters the tunnel at
20
o
C. Determine the cross sectional dimensions at
the end of the test section which will yield zero
pressure gradient along its length. Assume
velocity distribution in turbulent boundary layer to
follow the law and
5
1
y

V
v
|
.
|

\
|
=
o
5
10 53 . 1

= u
m
2
/sec
Problem 8
A plate 3.0 m X 1.5 m is held in water moving at
1.25 m/sec parallel to its length. If the flow in the
boundary layer is laminar at the leading edge of
the plate, determine
Whether the flow changes from laminar to
turbulent? If so, calculate the distance from the
leading edge where the boundary layer flow
changes from laminar to turbulent flow.
The thickness of the boundary layer at this section,
and The frictional drag on the plate considering
both its sides. (Assume that constant A is not
known).
Problem 9
A small low-speed wind tunnel is being designed for
calibration of hot wires. The air is at 19
0
C. The test section
of the wind tunnel is 30 cm in diameter and 30 cm in
length. The flow through the test section must be as
uniform as possible. The wind tunnel speed ranges from 1
to 8 m/s, and the design is to be optimized for an air speed
of V = 4.0 m/s through the test section. (a) For the case of
nearly uniform flow at 4.0 m/s at the test section inlet, by
how much will the centerline air speed accelerate by the
end of the test section? (b) Recommend a design that will
lead to a more uniform test section flow.
Problem
Below are given the wind tunnel measurement of
velocity at different elevations from the boundary.
What is the free stream velocity? Determine the
thickness of nominal boundary. Also determine the
exponent n in the equation.

y,
mm
1 2 5 7 10 15 20 25 50 75 100 150 200
v,
m/s
6.1 6.8 7.98 8.4 8.95 9.58 10.0
5
10.2
5
10.4 10.3 10.6 10.2 10.4
2
Problem 8
If the velocity in laminar boundary layer over a
flat plate is assumed to be given by the second
order polynomial, determine its form using the
necessary boundary conditions. Hence calculate
displacement and momentum thickness.
Quadratic
0
1
0 1
u/U
y
/
o
Blasius (exact)
Quadratic approximation to the
laminar boundary layer
Quadratic approximation to the
laminar boundary layer
2

y
2
U
u
|
.
|

\
|
=
Remember - boundary layer theory is only applicable inside
the boundary layer.
This is sometimes written with q=y/o and F(q)=u/U as
( )
2
2 F =
It provides a good approximation to the shape of the
laminar boundary layer and to the shear stress at the surface
Turbulent Boundary Layer
Laminar Sub-Layer