Chapter 4 . . . .

Sound Generation Mechanism

Anechoic Room
Anechoic Room
Directionality of sound sources . . .
Note: Semi-Anechoic Room
A room with anechoic walls and ceilings but with
a hard reflecting floor.

Sources which would be omni directional in free space
become directional to a certain extent if the radiation is
restricted to less than a complete spherical space.

eg: When the sound source is positioned with respect
to surfaces such as walls, floors and ceilings.
Directionality of sound sources . . .
The directivity of an omni directional source when
positioned at various points in a room:

Position of Source Part of sphere into
which source can radiate
Q D (dB)
Center of room
Whole sphere 1 0
Center of wall, floor, ceiling
1/2 2 +3
Junction of two planes
eg. wall & ceiling, wall & floor
1/4 4 +6
Corner (junction of three
planes)
1/8 8 +9
Example

Find the directivity index of a noise source
situated on open but hard reflecting ground.

Directionality of sound sources . . .
It is only free to radiate into a hemispherical space and
half the power which would have traveled downwards
is reflected upwards.
Average intensity over a half sphere
; W acoustic power of the
source
Average intensity over complete sphere
=>


2
av
2
W
I'
r t
=
2
av
4
W
I
r t
=
2
I
I'
Q
av
av
= =
3 2 10log Q 10log D = = =
Example

Show that the average sound level over the
complete sphere, L
av
= L
av
-3, where L
av
is the
average of measured sound levels when the
sound source is placed on hard reflecting
ground

Answer

3 L L'
2 log 10 }
I
I
x
I
I'
{ log 10
2 log 10 }
I
I'
{ log 10 D
2
W
I'
4
W
I
av av
av
0
0
av
av
av
2
av
2
av
=
= =>
= =
=
=
r
r
t
t
Example

The sound pressure level is measured as
92dB (A) at 4 m from a sound source of sound
power level 103 dB (A).
Find directivity factor (Q) in that direction.

Assume the source is placed on hard reflecting
surface.

Answer

8 7.9
10 Q
Q log 10
(A) dB 9.04
8 4 log 20 103 - 92
8 r log 20 L L D
L - L D
8 r log 20 L L
0.9
w
av
w av
~ =
=
=
=
+ + =
+ + =
=
=
Chapter 5

Properties of Sound
Properties of Sound

1) Absorption, Reflection & Transmission
2) Total absorption
3) Sound Absorbers
a Porous absorbers
b Membrane absorbers
c Cavity absorbers
4) Broadband sound absorption
5) Sound transmission
6) Mass law
7) Wave propagation in solids
8) Sound Insulation
Absorption, Reflection & Transmission
Sound absorption is defined, as the incident sound
that strikes a material that is not reflected back.

Reflection of sound takes place when there is a
change of medium. The laws of reflection for sound
are similar to those for light.
1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection
2. The incident wave, the reflected wave and the normal
all lie in the same plane.
Absorption, Reflection & Transmission . . .






E
i
amount of acoustic energy incident
E
r
amount of acoustic energy reflected
E
a
amount of acoustic energy absorbed
E
t
amount of acoustic energy transmitted
E
i
E
r
E
t
E
a
Medium1
Medium2
Absorption, Reflection & Transmission . . .
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, by the law of
conservation of energy.
E
i
= E
r
+ E
a
+ E
t
Sound Absorption coefficient:
The absorption coefficient of a material is ideally
the fraction of the randomly incident sound power
which is absorbed, or otherwise not reflected.




i
t a
i
r i
E
E E

E
E E

+
=

=
Absorption, Reflection & Transmission . . .
Sound absorption coefficient is a key factor in
selecting sound absorptive material.

For open window, E
r
= 0, E
a
= 0 E
i
= E
t


When the surface is a perfect reflector,
E
i
= E
r


depends on the frequency of incident sound.
It also depends on how the sound incident on the
surface.
1
max
= =
0
min
= =
' '
Absorption, Reflection & Transmission . . .
For normal incidence, is called normal
incidence absorption coefficient and is denoted
by
0.




In the case of oblique incidence the coefficient is
expressed as





u
Absorption, Reflection & Transmission . . .
For sounds incident at all angles the coefficient is
called random incidence absorption coefficient, .


Measurement of absorption coefficient
It is essential to know the absorption coefficient values
of the materials used to build a design.

Methods of measurement:
1) Reverberation chamber method
2) Impedance tube method


Reverberation chamber method allows all angles of
incidence. So the measured coefficient will be Random
incidence absorption coefficient.
Impedance tube method only measures the
absorption coefficient at normal incidence.
Measurement of absorption coefficient
Reverberation chamber method:
The chamber is made by hard surfaces which reflect
sound.
Non-directional or 'diffuse sound field is produced
Also appropriate for measurement of sound absorption
and transmission loss characteristics of materials.

The value obtained by measurement in a reverberation
chamber is generally designated and is used in
practice as the absorption coefficient.
Measurement of absorption coefficient
Impedance tube method:




Measured absorption coefficient is,
A useful indication of the sort of absorbent properties of
a material
Mainly used in theoretical and research work
Used in quality control for the production of acoustic
absorbent materials
Total absorption
The effective area of absorption of a particular surface
=
i
S
i
;
i
absorption coefficient
S
i
area of surface

Total absorption or total effective area of absorption ,
A =
i
S
i

is the sum of the contributions of all
surfaces.
Types of Absorbers
Absorbers may be divided into three main types:

1. Porous absorbers
2. Membrane absorbers
3. Helmholtz absorbers

The sound energy is converted into heat in all three
types of absorbers mentioned above.

But there are different frequency responses for each
type of absorber.
Types of Absorbers
Porous absorbers (Dissipative absorbers):
Porous absorbers are the most commonly used sound
absorbing materials. These materials allow air to flow
into a cellular structure where sound energy is
converted to heat.

Porous materials are light weight , spongy and have
interconnected pores.
An effective porous absorber will pass air under
moderate pressure.
A simple test to identify a porous absorber is to blow
through it.
Porous absorbers . . .
Porous absorbers are most effective in slowing down
air particles with a high sound velocity

Common porous absorbers include carpet, glass fiber,
glass wool, rock wool, open-cell foam, porous ceiling
tile etc.

Sound Absorption Mechanism:
The friction between air particles and pores causes
sound energy to be dissipated in the form of heat.
When the pores are isolated the heat transfer process
occurs in isolated places and it will not take much
sound off by friction.
Porous Absorbers . . .
Frequency response:









Sound absorption is large at high frequencies and small
at low frequencies.
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
125 250 500 1k 2k 4k
Frequency (Hz)

Thick sample
Thin sample
Porous absorbers . . .
At all frequencies these materials have some amount of
absorption.

Sound absorption can be slightly improved by
increasing the thickness at low frequency.

A porous sound absorber is identified on drawings by a
ribbon candy symbol.


Types of Absorbers
Membrane absorbers (Panel absorbers):

Membrane.
2) Panel Absorbers: Typically, panel absorbers are non-rigid, non-
porous materials which are placed over an airspace that
vibrates in a flexural mode in response to sound pressure
exerted by adjacent air molecules. Common panel
(membrane) absorbers include thin wood paneling over
framing, lightweight impervious ceilings and floors, glazing
and other large surfaces capable of resonating in response to
sound. Panel absorbers are usually most efficient at absorbing
low frequencies. This fact has been learned repeatedly on
orchestra platforms where thin wood paneling traps most of
the bass sound, robbing the room of warmth.
Cavity.
3) Resonators: Resonators typically act to absorb sound in a narrow frequency
range. Resonators include some perforated materials and materials that
have openings (holes and slots). The classic example of a resonator is the
Helmholtz resonator, which has the shape of a bottle. The resonant
frequency is governed by the size of the opening, the length of the neck
and the volume of air trapped in the chamber. Typically, perforated
materials only absorb the mid-frequency range unless special care is taken
in designing the facing to be as acoustically transparent as possible. Slots
usually have a similar acoustic response. Long narrow slots can be used to
absorb low frequencies. For this reason, long narrow air distribution slots
in rooms for acoustic music production should be viewed with suspicion
since the slots may absorb valuable low-frequency energy.
Impedance tube method
Reference book:
Acoustics and noise control
2
nd
edition
B J Smith, R J Peters and S Owen

Practical schedule
3 Practical
2 - Outdoors
1 Industrial visit

Assignments:
Three (3) in-class assignments, each carry 10 marks.
3 for performance
7 for assignment