FRACTURED RESERVOIR MODELING

Fractured reservoir characterization Modelling and simulation
April 2009
232, Avenue Napolon Bonaparte P.O. BOX 213 92502 Rueil-Malmaison France Phone: +33 1 47 08 80 00 Fax: +33 1 47 08 41 85 info@beicip.fr
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Objectives of the course
Background, methodologies and tools to account for the presence of fractures in oil & gas reservoirs
Part 1: What is a fractured reservoir? What is the impact of fractures on field behavior? When do we consider a reservoir is fractured? Part 2: How to characterize a fractured reservoir? How to detect fractures? How to model their distribution as well as their geological and flow properties?
Part 3: Which parameters control the fluid flow in fractures ? How to upscale these parameters into a flow simulator ?
Part 4: How to identify the appropriate recovery mechanism?
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Part 5: How to simulate a fractured reservoir? How to develop a fractured reservoir?

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir
Naturally fractured reservoirs
Part 1: What is a Fractured Reservoir?
232, Avenue Napolon Bonaparte P.O. BOX 213 92502 Rueil-Malmaison France Phone: +33 1 47 08 80 00 Fax: +33 1 47 08 41 85 info@beicip.fr
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fm Naturally Fractured Reservoirs Km Matrix
fm Km
fm Km
Fractures
F KF Fractures = matrix heterogeneity Impact recovery

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Main outlines Definitions

- What is a fracture, a fracture set, a fracture network ? - Definition of the fracture properties - What is a fractured reservoir ?
The main types of fractures

- Joints, swarms - Faults - Fold related fractures - Stylolites related fractures
The main type of fracture reservoirs

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Illustration of fractures / fracture sets
North
A fracture is characterized by its strike, dip, length, morphology, origin, aperture

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Fracture density (biased / unbiased)
50 m
A fracture set is characterized by its avg. strike and dip, length distribution, and density
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Illustration of the fracture connectivity 1/2
Local connection
Not connected network at grid scale

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Illustration of the fracture connectivity 2/2
connected network at grid scale
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If fractures are open, this connected fracture network will have an impact on fluid flow
Illustration of the fracture flow anisotropy P2
P1
~ P1
X
P2
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The connected fracture network will induce flow anisotropy in the reservoir: Px < Py
Matrix block size definition
The block size is determined by length of matrix blocks surrounded by connected fractures
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Length of homogenisation
REV = Representative elementary volume

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The length of homogenization (REV) is a value of grid size not impacting the fracture properties
Summary
What is a fracture, a fracture set, a fracture network? A fracture is a surface of discontinuity of mechanical origin. The fracture is the failure of a rock (= deformation) resulting from applied forces (= stress)
a fracture is characterised by its attributes (dip, strike, length, aperture, morphology and origin) A fracture set (or fracture family) is a set of fractures with similar attributes The fracture network involves the description of the fracture attributes and investigates the relationship between the different fracture sets the fracture network is characterised by the spatial properties of fractures, such as the number of fracture sets, their relative fracture density, the fracture connectivity, the length of homogenization
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Summary What is a fractured reservoir?

For geologists: A fractured reservoir is first and foremost a reservoir with structural discontinuities resulting from a given paleostress history For reservoir engineers: A fractured reservoir is first and foremost a reservoir with structural discontinuities affecting flows [ R.A. Nelson, in Geologic Analysis of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs, quotes:
A fractured reservoir is defined as a reservoir in which naturally occurring fractures either have, or are predicted to have, a significant effect on reservoir fluid flow either in the form of increased reservoir permeability and/or porosity or increased permeability anisotropy ]
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Fracture propagation modes
Mode I: Fractures are purely dilational

(extension)
Mode II: Fractures may exhibit shearing with

components parallel (mode II) to the direction of propagation of the fracture front.
Mode III: Fractures may exhibit shearing

with components perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the fracture front. Shear fractures are also known as faults
Fracture mode nomenclature is purely descriptive, not genetic. For example, a mode I fracture can be formed by one or more mechanisms such as hydraulic fracturing, thermal contraction, etc.
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Fractures and stress state
Stress is defined as the force per unit area acting on a given plane. Any stress state at a point in a solid body can be described completely by the orientations and magnitudes of three stresses called principal stresses and oriented perpendicular to each other. The principal stresses are defined: s1> s2> s 3
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Example fractures and stress state
Increased confining Stress and/or Temperature Joints (mode I) in green Shear fractures/faults (mode II) in red Stylolites in blue
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Fracture classification (genetics)
1. Tectonic fractures
Small-scale fractures (diffuse/sistematic fractures) Joints, fold-related fractures
Large-scale fractures
Fracture swarms, fault-related fractures
2. Diagenetic fractures
Bed-parallel stylolites, stylolite-related fractures, diagenetic cracks, etc.
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What is a naturally fractured reservoir ?
Tectonic fractures
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Fracture classification (genetics)

Fracture swarms (fracture corridors, large-scale fractures)
They consist of several sub-parallel and aligned fractures clustered in a well-defined zone (Bahat 1988; Becker and Gross 1996; Rijken and Cooke 2001). Large lateral extents Not controlled by lithology, porosity, etc. They go through the different reservoir units thus connecting / disconnecting them.
Diffuse fractures (small-scale fractures)

They consist of smaller objects in a vertical scale, as they are often restricted to the bed boundaries (Gross, 1993). More diffuse over a large area Bed-confined Controlled by lithology, porosity amongst others
Diffuse fractures
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Fracture swarms
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Tectonic fractures Joints
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Definition of joint Joints (small-scale fractures)

Joints are fractures developed over large areas of the earths crust with relatively little change in orientation,
with no evidence of offset along the plane, and

perpendicular to bedding.
Common features: Extension fractures Vertical maximum stress 2 directions 90 deg to bedding & 90 deg to one another Systematic set 1st & Non-systematic 2nd Unrelated to local structure
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Joint sets in sandstones
Homogeneous density
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Joint sets in carbonates
A
Homogeneous fracture density with constant fracture orientation
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Figure 1 Outcrop patternPart of 1an orthogonal fracture set on a gentle fold limb. What is a naturally fractured reservoir
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Joints are controlled by bed thickness
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Factors controlling the fracture density 2. Bedding

h3 h2 h1
h1> h2 > h3
Density 3 > Density 2 > Density 1
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Relation between lithology and fracture density Joints are controlled by lithology
High Shale content
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Factors controlling the fracture density 3. Grain size and porosity
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Relation between lithology, bed thickness and fracture density
LITHOLOGY FRACTURE DENSITY 0 10
MFS FS
Fracture
density
controlled by : 2 : Bed thickness

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1 : Shalyness
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Tectonic fractures Fold-related fractures
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Definition of fold
Folds result from a compressive ductile deformation, in which the maximum stress axis (s1) is sub-horizontal
Anticline
Youngest
Oldest
Youngest
Syncline
Oldest Youngest Oldest
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Fold geometry
Study-case in Northern Mexico: the Menchaca Anticline
The Menchaca anticline is a kink-style box fold, cored by evaporites (Olvido Fm, Middle Jurassic)
Courtesy of PEMEX
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Fracturing and folding
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1 and 2 form during the early phases of folding (e.g. layer parallel shortening) 3 and 4 form in the latest phases of folding.
Fold and fractures relationship 1/3

Tectonic Fractures on the fold flank (K/T Ss, Rogers Mnt., WY)
80 deg
20 ft
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Fold and fractures relationship 1/3

Tectonic Fractures on the fold flank (Arroyo Lapa, Argentina)
80
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Strain partitioning in a fold
Fractures produced by extension are pure extensional and open fractures Fractures produced by compression are closed, stylolithic and/or partially open.
Compression
Extension
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Tectonic fractures Fracture swarms
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Definition of fracture swarms

FRACTURE SWARMS (Large-scale fractures) Fracture swarms are areas where fracture density is high and fractures are preferentially oriented. They are largescale objects (several hundred meters). Usually fractures cut through layers boundaries.
They consist of several sub-parallel and aligned fractures

clustered in a well-defined zone (Bahat 1988; Becker and Gross 1996; Rijken and Cooke 2001).
Common features: Large lateral extents Not controlled by lithology, porosity, etc. They go through the different reservoir units thus connecting /
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disconnecting them.
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Fracture swarms in carbonate reservoirs 3/5
Fracture density log
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Fracture swarms in sandstone reservoirs
2m
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15 Fracture density 0
Fractures per meter
200m
100m
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Fracture swarms in sandstone reservoirs 5a/5
Limestone
Calvisson quarry (France - Gard)
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Fracture swarms in sandstone reservoirs 5b/5
Limestone
Calvisson quarry (France - Gard)

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Minerals + Cristals
Tectonic fractures Fault-related fractures
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Definition of fault
FAULTS (Large-scale fractures) Faults are defined as structures across which appreciable shear displacement discontinuities occur. Fault blocks predominantly move along the plane or zone of the discontinuity. The term fault zone is used when referring to the zone of complex deformation (fracturing) that is associated with the fault plane.
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Fault terms and fault types
Normal Fault
Reverse/Thrust Fault
Hanging wall block
Strike-slip Fault
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Faults and stress state
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Faults in outcrop
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Faults and fracture density 1/2
Micarelli et al., 2003
Caine et al. 1996
Caine et al., 1996 - Geology
Micarelli et al., 2003 Journal of Geodynamics

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Density of fault-related fractures progressively decreases with increasing fault distance
Faults and fracture density 2/2

Fault Core
E
Background Subvertical Fractures Background Subvertical Fractures
5 cm
5 cm
Lozenge-shaped fractures
Poorly damaged area
Damaged area
Damaged area
Poorly damaged area

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Fault core
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Faults and wide damaged zone 1/3
Example of a fault with an intensely deformed and wide damaged zone

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Geological factors controlling damage zone formation in normal faults Syn-sedimentary faults often have not a damage zone associated (because sediments are not yet compacted during faulting)
Porous sandstones
Displacement 1m
Shales Tight sandstones
Displacement 1m
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The absence of a damage zone can also depend from the mechanical behaviour of rocks affected by faults
Modified from Knott et al. (1996)
The widest damage zone for normal faults forms either in the hanging wall near the upper tip of the fault or in the footwall near the lower tip.
The width/location of the damage zone observed at wells may depend on where the well intersects a fault (near either the upper or lower tip)
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Diagenetic fractures Bed-parallel stylolites
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Definition of stylolites
A bed-parallel stylolite is an irregular discontinuity commonly found in limestones and other sedimentary rocks. They result from compaction and pressure solution during diagenesis and may be enlarged by subsequent groundwater flow. Stylolites appear as jagged discontinuities in outcrops and are often filled with insoluble clays, opaques (such as iron oxide), or dark organic matter.
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Bed-parallel stylolites in outcrop
Bed-parallel stylolites in limestones (Southern France) Bed-parallel stylolites in limestones (Southern France)
Bed-parallel stylolites in pink Ordovician limestone (Tennessee, US)

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Stylolite related fractures observed on cores
Tectonic fractures
Tension gashes Paleo-minimum stress direction Stylolite peaks Tight zone related to pressuresolution Stylolite
Fracture
overburden
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Fractures / tension gashes related stylolites
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Origin of stylolites is overburden plus tectonic stresses They form tight intervals that may be preferentially fractured
Various structural objects
Fault
Large-scale fractures
Swarm
Fold related fractures
Stylolites related fractures
Small-scale fractures
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Joint = Systematic set
What is a naturally fractured reservoir ?
Main types of fractured reservoirs
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Main types of fractured reservoirs 1/5

Type 1 Fractures provide both porosity and permeability in the reservoir (no hydrocarbon in the matrix)
Examples: LA PAZ (Venezuela) WHITE TIGER (Vietnam) MONTE ALPI (Italy) ROSPO MARE (Italy)
ff K f
Matrix
Fracture
f m~ 0
K
m
~0
Hydrocarbon
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Type 2 Fractures provide permeability in the reservoir (the hydrocarbon is mainly in the matrix)
Fracture
Examples: QUARTZITE SANDSTONE (Algeria) HUSSUM SCHNEEREN (Germany) OROCUAL (Venezuela) AGHA JARI (Iran) HAFT KEL (Iran) VILLAFORTUNA (Italy)
f f < 1%
Kf
fm
K
m
Matrix
~0
Hydrocarbon
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Type 3 Fractures enhance permeability in the reservoir (matrix is porous and permeable) Examples: KIRKUK (Iraq) GACHSARAN (Iran) CANTAREL (Mexico) LACQ (France) EKOFISK (Norway)
ff K f fm
Km
Matrix
Fracture
Hydrocarbon
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Main types of fractured reservoirs Type 4 Fractures generate a high flow anisotropy in the reservoir
Fracture
Examples: HASSI MESSAOUD (Algeria) GHAWAR (Saudi Arabia) SHAH (Abu Dhabi)
ff K f
fm
Matrix
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Km

Control of production from naturally fractured reservoirs (from Nelson R.A.) Type 1 : Fractures provide both porosity and permeability
In crystalline and metamorphic rocks and in shales where matrix porosity and permeability are negligible. Ex. : Big Sandy Field (fractured shale gas reservoir: fracture planes (opening =300) often coated with crystalline dolomite)
Type 2 : Fractures provide the permeability

Typical fractured reservoirs, with matrix providing the essential porosity and fractures the essential permeability Ex. : Sprawberry Field (Kmatrix=0.3-0.5 md while overall permeability is 16 md, fmatrix~8% ff~0.1%)
Type 3 : Fractures provide a permeability assist

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Fractured reservoirs where both matrix and fractures contribute significantly to production at field scale Ex. : Kirkuk Field (highly-productive fractured limestone)
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Influence of fractures on field behavior
High productivity/injectivity Anisotropy of flows Early breakthrough Communication between different reservoirs Specific recovery mechanisms (dual medium) If sealed fractures : compartmentalization into several reservoir units
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Specificity of fractured porous reservoirs

Duality between Matrix and Fractures
a Fractured reservoir = a Matrix reservoir + a Network of useful fractures
Matrix = High fluid capacity / low permeability Fractures = Low fluid capacity / high permeability Ratio of capacity (F/M): 10-3 to 10-2 Ratio of permeability (F/M): 10 to 1000
(Well test interpretation methods are based on this dual-porosity flow behavior)
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Fractures bypass the matrix spontaneous (= non-forced) displacement mechanisms (expansion, capillarity, gravity, diffusion) control oil recovery from matrix blocks
Absolute criteria of fracturation 1/2
Absolute criteria of fracturation: well testing versus core analysis (K.H) test >> (K.H) matrix (at least 10 times)
Required information: an interpreted pressure build-up matrix permeability from representative core measurements (or f-K laws
and porosity log) - continuous sampling through the reservoir - K measurements under stress (or corrected for stress effects)
Ex. Meillon field : K test /K core = 100-10000
(SPE 22915)
Difficulties: Which H has been tested ? Reservoir / Perforated /Producing height ? (KH) calculation from plug measurements? Which average?
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Absolute criteria of fracturation 2/2

100000
10000
Fractures enhance K.H (Ratios from 5 to 1000)
K.H Test
1000
No evidence of fracture
100
10
Fractures reduce K.H

1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
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K.H Core
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Carbonate field with conductive faults 1/2
Type 4 example Conductive faults 2 fractures sets - NS - N120 Anisotropy N120
Lagalaye (Total), Grard (Beicip-Franlab) Conductive Fault Modelling and History Match Improvements on a Fractured Carbonate Field - GEO2002 - Bahrein 14-17th of april 2002
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Carbonate field with conductive faults 2/2
INJ 2
Conductive faults
INJ 1
Well E Well B Well D
Well A Well C
Sealing faults
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Early water breakthrough due to conductive faults
A B C D E
A B C D E
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Sweep efficiency
Water saturation after 20 years in a carbonate field with fracture swarms

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Recovery mechanisms in fractured reservoirs
Flow mechanisms in fractured reservoirs

- In the fractures - In the matrix - Between matrix and fractures
Main drive mechanisms in fractured reservoirs

- Convection segregation - Imbibition - Gravity drainage
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Flow mechanisms in fractured reservoirs 1/3

Principle: fractures enable the large-scale transport but most of the oil is contained in the matrix blocks: matrix-fracture transfer is essential
- Forced displacement in fractures only, not significant in matrix (except if low permeability constrast between fracture and matrix) ; - Only spontaneous mechanisms are efficient for recovering matrix oil: expansion, capillarity, gravity drainage, diffusion;
- Fractures act as a saturation (or pressure or composition) boundary condition for matrix blocks: they impose on the limits of the blocks a fixed potential different from that of matrix; large exchange surfaces are offered. - Determinant parameters for exchanges: block size and shape (height); matrix properties; wettability, permeability, boundary conditions (rate of fracture invasion), fluid properties.
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Viscous flow (forced displacement) is in most of the cases negligible in a fractured reservoir
P1 P2
P2 ~ P1 and Kf >> Km
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Water Injection
Depletion
Gas Injection
A
GOC
WOC
Gravity Drainage
Segregation +Convection within fractures
Gas drive
Diffusion Reimbibition
GOC WOC
Imbibition
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Water drive
Convection phenomenon
Gas liberated
GOC
Heavier oil
High vertical permeability Gravity segregation Thermal gradients
Lighter oil
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Field observation: bubble point pressures
84 bar
GOC, 1900 m
112 bar
In 1998
2000 m
124 bar
1950 m 2255 m 2620 m
Reduction of bubble point pressure with time
3000 m
(initially 150 bar everywhere in 1977)
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Field example of Matrix-Fracture transfer
Cretaceous Upper Reservoir Interval

Fault related fractures Diffuse fracture network 8 matricial reservoir matricial reservoir Lower 7 / 5c matrix
Cretaceous Lower Reservoir Interval

Fault related fractures
Basement Interval
Fault related fractures
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Gas-cap evolution in the fractures
Start
10 years
20 years
55 years
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Rapid Evolution of the gas-cap In the fracture

Gas-cap evolution in the matrix
Start
10 years
20 years
55 years
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Gas Drainage = small effect In the matrix blocks Reason: Block reduced size

Water evolution in the fractures
Start
10 Years
20 Years
Water Injection Started 40 years after production
55 Years
Injected water
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No natural water encroachment

Water evolution in the matrix
Start
10 Years
20 Years
55 Years
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important Effect of matrix blocks imbibition Due to water injection Reason: blocks wettability
Field recovery examples 1/3

Haft kel (Iran): 35% OIP recovered Primary recovery: depletion and imbibition 26% Secondary recovery: gas injection 35%
Ekofisk: 35 - 40 % OIP (Water injection + Subsidence) - low-permeability chalk, water wet rock - small block size Qarn al alam: 1.5% OIP (17 years production, water breakthrough due to fractures) viscous oil (16API, 220 cP) low-permeability oil-wet matrix Emeraude: 3 - 6 % OIP (Water/Oil) - viscous oil (~ 100 cP) - Oil wet - solution gas drive recovery mechanism Idd el shargi north dome: 1.6% OIP (28 years production, 1991) Thick water-oil transition, conductive faults, low productivity (Km= 1 to 5 mD) Secondary recovery : ring pattern waterflood, crestal gas injection
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Gas fields examples:
- Meillon: 60% GIP (Gas / Water)
Fractures provide enhanced productivity BUT early water breakthrough
- Lacq Profond: > 95% GIP (single-phase depletion)

Fractures enhance productivity (Km # 10-3 mD)
Conclusion: - Fractures can either enhance recovery (Lacq, Haft Kel) or stop it prematurely (breakthroughs) - Recovery may be very low in fractured reservoirs with poor oil and matrix properties (high o, low K, oil wettability) and/or an unsuited production method (early breakthroughs)
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20 18 16 14
Gas reservoirs Oil reservoirs
Frequency
12 10 8 6 4 2 0
0 - 10% 10 - 20% 20 - 30% 30 - 40% 40 - 50% 50 - 60% 60 - 70% 70 - 80% 80 - 90% 90 - 100%
Ultimate recovery
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Ref: SPE 84590 Figures obtained from 56 fractured oil reservoirs and 8 fractured gas reservoirs.
Checklist of fractured reservoir evidences 1/2

Main geological evidences of fractured reservoirs: Drilling information:
High rates of penetration (in the fractured intervals) Low core recovery (in highly fractured intervals)
Structural information
High structural dips, folding Field located close to regional faults
Core description
Presence of numerous continuous open (or partly open) fractures
Seismic data analysis

Presence of numerous faults
These information have to be integrated with dynamic data !!

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Checklist of fractured reservoir evidences 2/2

Main dynamic evidences of fractured reservoirs: Drilling information:
mud losses
Well testing:
Kh test >> Kh core dual porosity signature presence of no flow boundaries or constant pressure boundaries dispersion of skin data
Production logs
Low temperature gradient in the oil column (convection in fractures) Flowmeters with sudden changes
Production data/history high productivity/injectivity

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earlier breakthroughs than predicted by models ignoring fractures
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Cautions and conclusions Caution

Some fractured reservoirs do not yield typical dual-porosity well test results: transition between fracture and matrix regimes may be hidden or delayed. A typical dual-media well test behaviour may also result
- from communication between layers (cross-flow); - from a high-permeability heterogeneity of the matrix (permeable streaks).
Mud losses or well productivity are not sufficient indicators.
Conclusion
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Evidence of fractures and of matrix-fracture flow-property contrast results from the cross-checking of several sources of information.
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FRACTURED RESERVOIR MODELING

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FRACTURED RESERVOIR MODELING

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Fractured reservoir characterization Modelling and simulation

Objectives of the course

Part 5: How to simulate a fractured reservoir? How to develop a fractured reservoir?

Naturally fractured reservoirs

Part 1: What is a Fractured Reservoir?

fm Naturally Fractured Reservoirs Km Matrix

F KF Fractures = matrix heterogeneity Impact recovery

Main outlines Definitions

The main types of fractures

The main type of fracture reservoirs

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

Illustration of fractures / fracture sets

A fracture is characterized by its strike, dip, length, morphology, origin, aperture

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

Fracture density (biased / unbiased)

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

Illustration of the fracture connectivity 1/2

Not connected network at grid scale

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

Illustration of the fracture connectivity 2/2

connected network at grid scale

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

Illustration of the fracture flow anisotropy P2

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

Matrix block size definition

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

REV = Representative elementary volume

Summary What is a fractured reservoir?

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

Fracture propagation modes

Mode I: Fractures are purely dilational

Mode II: Fractures may exhibit shearing with

Mode III: Fractures may exhibit shearing

Fractures and stress state

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

Example fractures and stress state

Fracture classification (genetics)

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

What is a naturally fractured reservoir ?

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

Fracture classification (genetics)

Diffuse fractures (small-scale fractures)

Tectonic fractures Joints

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

Definition of joint Joints (small-scale fractures)

with no evidence of offset along the plane, and

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

Joint sets in sandstones

Joint sets in carbonates

Joints are controlled by bed thickness

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

Factors controlling the fracture density 2. Bedding

Density 3 > Density 2 > Density 1

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

High Shale content

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

Factors controlling the fracture density 3. Grain size and porosity

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir

Relation between lithology, bed thickness and fracture density

LITHOLOGY FRACTURE DENSITY 0 10

controlled by : 2 : Bed thickness

Part 1- What is a naturally fractured reservoir