1

Lecture 17
Final Version

Contents
Lift on an airfoil
Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional Homogeneity
Drag on a Sphere / Stokes Law
Self Similarity
Dimensionless Drag / Drag
Coefficient
2
Recall : Cylinder with Circulation in a Uniform Flow
Without performing calculation, can see that a uniform flow around a fix cylinder
gives no net lift or drag on cylinder since pressure distribution on surface is
symmetric about x- and y-axis..
2 K p G=
Note that this does not violate the flow around cylinder: line vortex produces a
u
u
component of velocity only. Hence, we are still adhering to condition that flow
cannot pass through cylinder boundary.
Working from S.F. for cylinder in uniform flow additional inclusion of line vortex
gives:
( ) C r K
r
r U r + =

ln
sin
sin ,
u
u u

origin at
Doublet

flow
Uniform

origin at
vortex Line

constant
Arbitrary
Use result that radius
of resulting cylinder is :
And set :

=
U
R

R K C ln =
(1)
(1)

R
r
K
r
R
r U ln sin
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

u
Velocity
Components
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
c
=

2
2
1 cos
1
r
R
U
r
u
r
u
u

2
2
R K
u U sin 1
r r r
q
y
q

= - = - + +

In order to generate lift need to break symmetry. Achieved by introducing

line vortex of strength, K, at origin which introduces circulation .
3
Continued...
So, on surface (r=R), velocity components are:
0 =
r
u
R
K
U u + =

u
u
sin 2
Surface Stagnation points also need:
0 =
u
u

=
U R
K
2
sinu
Note: By setting vortex strength zero (K=0), recover flow over cylinder in
uniform flow with stagnation points at
t u , 0 =
Plotting, Choose value for K, Now first get value of S.F. for r=R,... then
set S.F. equal to that value, then compile table r vs. angle This gives
particular streamline through stagnation points.
Then choose any other point in flow field not on stagnation streamline,
determine value of S.F. for this point, set S.F. equal to that value, then
compile table r vs. angle This gives streamline through the chosen particular
points Then choose another point in flow field etc (compare flow chart
from beginning of lecture). For various values of K the following, flow fields
emerge...
0 = K 1 = K
2 = K 3 = K
4
Pressure Distribution Around the Cylinder
To evaluate press. on cyl. surface use Bernoulli Eq. along S.L. that
originates far upstream where flow is undisturbed. Ignoring grav.
forces:
2 2
2
1
2
1
S
S
U p U p + = +


flow
d undisturbe
Upstream

surface
cylinder On
Substituting for surface flow speed : with
K
u 2U sin
R
q
q

= - +
R
u 0, =

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =


2
2 2
sin
4
sin 4 1
2
1
U R
K
U R
K
U p p
S
u u
difference in pressures between surface and undisturbed free stream
(1)
In particular for non-rotating cylinder
where K=0:
{ } u
2 2
sin 4 1
2
1
=

U p p
S
(2)
u

2
2
sin 4 1
2
1
=

U
p p
C
S
p
+ Def.: Pressure Coefficient

Only top half of cyl. shown.

2 2 2
S r
U u u
q
= +
5
Continued...

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

2
2
2
sin
4
sin 4 1
2
1
U R
K
U R
K
U
p p
C
S
p
u u

Qualitative behaviour of
for various values of .

RU K
Best way of interpreting above graphs is to think of flow velocity and radius being constant
while vortex strength is increasing from one plot to next.

RU K
When plotting graphs I did not explicitly specify velocity or radius! I simply used different
numeric values for in order to illustrate behaviour of graph. I have not considered
if any of these cases may not be realizable in reality or not!.
, cyl. of Top : 57 . 1 2 , cyl. of Rear : 0 ( = = = t u u
) cyl. of Bott. : 71 . 4 2 3 , cyl. of Front : 14 . 3 = = = = t u t u
6
Continued...
Equation (1)
can be used to calculate net lift and drag acting on cylinder!

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =


2
2 2
sin
4
sin 4 1
2
1
U R
K
U R
K
U p p
S
u u
Sketch (A) Sketch (B)
In Sketch (b) ...
( ) ( ) u u u o sin sin

= = p p p L
S
( ) ( ) u u u o cos cos

= = p p p D
S
Hence, integration around cylinder surface yields total L and D ...
( )
}

=
t
u u
2
0
sin d R b p p L
S
( )
}

=
t
u u
2
0
cos d R b p p D
S
where b is width (into paper) of cylinder. Substituting for pressure using
Eq. (1), and integrating (most terms drop out), leads to following results:
b K U
R b
U R
K
U L
t
t

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
4
2
1
2
0 = D
Or, lift per unit width:
( ) I = =

U K U
b
L
t 2
Thus, drag zero
a remarkable result!

Theorem Lift
Joukowski Kutta
Paradox
s Alembert' d'
7
Continued...
Net lift is indicated in sketch below. ... Note that if a line vortex is used which
rotates in mathematically positive sense (anti-clockwise) then resulting lift is
negative, i.e. downwards.
I =

U
b
L

U
L
Final notes: How is lift generated? ... From sketch above and from
pressure profiles plotted earlier it is evident how this is physically
achieved Breaking of the flow symmetry in x-axis means that flow
round lower part of cylinder is faster than round top - this means that
pressure is lower round bottom and so a net downward force results.
Notice that symmetry in y-axis is retained symmetry of pressure
on left-hand and right-hand faces is retained and so there is no net
drag force. Keep in mind that our analysis was for an ideal fluid (i.e.
there is no viscosity). In a real flow would fore-aft symmetry be
retained?
Lastly, since lift is proportional to circulation, we wish to make
circulation large to generate a large lifting force. In applications of
above flow this is achieved by spinning cylinder to produce large
vorticity but is there a limit to how much circulation we should
produce?
------------------------End of Recall--------------------
8
Circulation and Lift for Aerofoil Applications
If a thin symmetric aerofoil is placed at zero incidence in an inviscid,
irrotational and imcompressible uniform flow, the flow pattern shown
in Fig. (1) below ensues. There is no circulation and the aerofoil does
not generate lift. (This case is analogous to the cylinder with )
0 = I
Fig. (1)
In case of cylinder, can generate vorticity by spinning cylinder. For
airfoil section this can be achieved by setting it at incidence or by
using a non-symmetric shape (which shape to get lift? and to get
negative lift?). Placed at incidence, flow past a thin symmetric
aerofoil is shown in Fig. (2).
Fig. (2)
Clearly airfoil experiences upward force - compare flow speeds on
upper and lower surfaces. We have seen that this type of flow speed
differential can be modelled by using line vortices which yield
circulation and hence lift. (In Fig. (2) line vortices would have
negative K to give clockwise velocity contribution.)
9
Continued...
If we wish to calculate lift per unit span on aerofoil section using
Kutta-Joukowski Lift Theorem ...
I =

U
b
L

then need to know value of circulation for a given aerofoil at a

specific flow speed and for particular angle of incidence. Key to
finding unique value of circulation lies in modelling flow at trailing
edge of aerofoil. Consider Fig. (3a-c) below ...
n Circulatio : Speed Flow : Air Density : I

U
Evidently the correct value
Kutta
I = I
Fig. (3)
The KUTTA CONDITION ...
has been used in Fig. (3c).
states that flow from upper and lower surfaces must leave trailing
edge with same speed. The Kutta condition thus determines correct
value of circulation when performing a calculation of flow around a
lifting aerofoil.
10
Continued...
Increasing either
Speed Flow : or Incidence of Angle :

U o
increases
Kutta
I and hence the lift.
Is there a limit to how large one can make angle of incidence and
hence ?
Kutta
I
For a flat plate with the lift experienced is o incidence
( ) o t

~ U c U
b
L
where c is length of plate. Non-dimensional lift coefficient given by
o t

2
2
1
2
~ =

c b U
L
C
L
This result (as with calculations for aerofoils) is achieved by using a
line of vortices - a vortex sheet - within aerofoil section to generate
circulation, rather than a single line vortex as used for cylinders in our
earlier considerations.
11
Continued...
Qualitative comparison of pressure coefficient for NACA 0012 airfoil at incidence
with one of the earlier graphs for pressure coefficient of a rotating cylinder.
Upper wing surface
Lower wing surface
Lower cyl. half
Upper cyl. half
Note: In order to get negative pressure coefficient on top half of
cylinder and (i.e. upward lift) need to reverse sense of rotation of line
vortex used in example for flow around rotating cylinder.
(Comparison included here to highlight where corresponding points / regions are
and to practice how to read such graphs.)
NACA
airfoil
Rotating
cylinder
12
Dimensional Analysis and Model Testing
Introduction to Dimensional Analysis
Consider drag D of sphere .
On what quantities does it depend?
Flow Speed,
Fluid Density,
Fluid Viscosity,
V
d

( ) , , ,V d F D =
Diameter,
Write
What does the above mean in terms of the
measurements we have to carry out to collect
data for all possible spheres in all types of fluids?
(1)
Note: Eq.(1) reads Drag, D, is a Function of ...
13
Continued ...
WE NEED ...
1 page for Drag as
function of 2 variables
(e.g. velocity and
diameter)
d increases
from curve
to curve
1 book for Drag as
function of 3 variables
(e.g. velocity, diameter,
density)
1 page for
each value
of

Shelf of books for Drag as a

function of 4 variables
(velocity, diameter, density,
viscosity)
If we want 10 data points per curve, at 10 each
experiment, this will cost...
000 , 100 10 10 10 10 10 =
THERE MUST BE
A BETTER WAY !?!?
14
Continued...
GOAL I S TO COMPRESS SHELF
OF BOOKS I NTO ONE SI NGLE
GRAPH...
D
R
A
G

4 I ndependent
Experimental Parameters
How Could We Possibly
Achieve This?
15
Dimensional Analysis for Re<<1
1 Re <<
(Note: Later we will relax this restriction and look at larger Re.)
What does imposed restriction mean?
1
Force Viscous
Force Inertia
. .
Force Viscous
Momentum of Change of Rate
<<
|
.
|

\
|
e i
Forces Viscous Forces Inertia <<
Viscous Forces are the dominant forces!
Inertia Forces are associated with density of Fluid
Consequently, if Inertia Forces << Visc. Forces then,
to a good approximation DRAG DOES NOT
DEPEND ON DENSITY of FLUID!
Thus, Eq.(1)...
( ) , , ,V d F D =
( ) , ,V d F D =
reduces to ...
(2)
(1) - repeated
16
Continued...
So, we are restricted to flow with..
HIGH RE NUMBER T
U
R
B
U
L
E
N
T
LOW RE NUMBER L
A
M
I
N
A
R
Restrictions exclude ...
17
Continued...
( ) , ,V d F D =
The expression Eq.(2) ...
(2) - repeated
represents a VERY general statement!!!
CRUCIAL NEXT STEP:
Ensure that function F has such a form that
one ends up with same dimensions
on both sides of equal sign.
Hence, we may NOT choose a function that produces a
non-sense statement where units are for instance ...
1 3 2
= V d D
Units:
2
s
m kg
Units:
4
4
3
3
2
s
m kg
m s
kg
s
m
m =
QUESTION:
How Do I Have To Choose Exponents
Such That Units AreThe Same on
Both Sides Of Equation?
18
Continued...
Answer question by determining conditions for
exponents under which one gets same units on both
sides of equation ...
( ) , ,V d F D =
(2) - repeated
Units:
Dimensions:
2
s
m kg
N = m
s
m
s m
kg
2
T L M
L
1
T L
1 1
T L M
Mass : M Length : L Time : T
WANT !!!
| o
d V D
| o , ,
such that
gives
2
T L M
2
T L M
(3a-c)
(4)
Find by subst. Eq.(3a-c) into Eq.(4) ...
19
Continued...
| o
d V D
(4) - repeated
( )
o
1
T L ( )
|
L ( )

1 1
T ML
=
2
T ML
Collect corresponding terms ...
o | o +
= T L M T L M
2
By comparing exponents ...
of M on left and right hand side of Eq.(5)
(5)
= 1
(6a)
of L on left and right hand side of Eq.(5)
| o + = 1
(6b)
of T on left and right hand side of Eq.(5)
o = 2
(6c)
Substitut Eq.(6a) into Eq.(6c) ...
1 2 = o
1 = o
(6d)
Substitut Eq.(6a) and Eq.(6d) into Eq.(6b) ...
1 1 1 + = |
1 = |
20
Continued...
In summary we get...
| o
d V D
(4) - repeated
where ...
1 = o 1 = | 1 =
This is the ONLY possible solution for the three
simultaneous linear equations Eqs.(6a-c)!
It is the ONLY possible solution that ensures ...
DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
This solution ...
d V const D =
t 3
for sphere. Must be obtained
from experiments or theory
STOKES LAW
Recall, that it is only valid for low Re!
is the ...
21
Continued...
While we assumed Re<<1 experiments show that Stokes
law is, in fact, valid for Re<2.
For flow regime where Stokes law is valid drag is
proportional to velocity. Hence, doubling velocity results in
double drag. We will later see that this is not the case for
higher Reynolds numbers.
The constant in Stokes law can, in principle be obtained
from one single experiment.
Think about all this an let it sink in We have
determined formula for drag forces acting on sphere
without knowing anything about the physics of the flow.
The only thing we did was ensuring dimensional
homogeneity! Of course the whole strategy can only yield
correct results if we have identified all parameters involved
in problem.
d V const D =
STOKES LAW
Recall, that it is only valid for low Re!
22
A note on .
Self Similarity
A common view is that scaling or power-law relations are
nothing more than the simplest approximations to the
available experimental data, having no special advantages
over other approximations. ...
Recall that we used a function of type...
| o
d V D
for the dimensional analysis. This is called a power-law
relation.
IT IS NOT SO !
Scaling laws give evidence of a very deep property of the
phenomena under consideration their ...
SELF SIMILARITY
Such phenomena reproduce themselves, so to speak, in time
and space.
From: G.I. Barenblatt, Scaling, self-similarity, and intermediate
asymptotics. Cambridge University Press, 1996
23
Continued...
Reproducing themselves means ...
2
a
that wake
behind an inclined
flat plate looks the
same as flow ...
the wake of a
grounded tankship.
Power laws are Magnifying Glasses
Example:
Going from
to ( )
2
2a
gives
2
4a
(I)
(II)
Apart from scale factor 4 Eq.(II)
is the same as Eq.(I)
24
Continued...
Some Background Info:
Classic example illustrating how powerful dimensional
analysis can be ...
Explosion of Atomic Bomb
By measuring radius r as a function of time, t, G.I. Taylor was
able to deduce energy released when bomb explodes by means
of dimensional analysis alone from analyzing freely available
cine films of explosions.
The figure was considered Top Secret back in the 1940s
Taylors result caused much embarrassment in US government
circles.
G. I. Taylor
( ) t r
Ground Ground
100 m
25
Continued...
TIP:
Use requirement for dimensional homogeneity as a quick
check for correctness of unfamiliar equations!
Example
Someone claims that drag force, D, acting on sphere with diameter
d moving with velocity V through a fluid of viscosity is given
by ...

t =
2
3 d V D
(Formula is wrong!)
Use dimensional arguments to show that this formula cannot be
right!
Left-hand side of equation is:
Solution
Right-hand side of equation is:
D is a force, hence, dimensions are
[ ]
2
2
ML
N kg . m/s
T

= =


( ) Viscosity Diameter Velocity
2

L
T

( )
2
L
M
LT
2
2
ML
T
=
Different dimensions on both sides of the
equation. Hence, formula cannot be right!
([..] tells that you take the dimension of the unit)
26
Continued...
GOAL WAS
TO COMPRESS SHELF OF BOOKS WI TH DRAG
DATA I NTO ONE SI NGLE GRAPH...
D
R
A
G

4 I ndependent
Experimental Parameters
Briefly recall where we were coming from and where
we are heading for.
We are not there yet but
we are getting closer...
27
Dimensionless Drag / Drag Coefficient
Flow

=V V
Stagnation
Point

= p p
0 , = V p
s
Apply Bernoulli along streamline to stagnation point ...
s
p V p = +

2
2

(1)
2
2

= V p p
s

(2)
Pressure in wake must be approximately equal to
pressure in free stream

~ p p
w
If one neglects viscosity then drag arises only because of
different pressures on front and back of sphere.
w s
p p p = A
With Eq. (2)

= A p p p
s
(3)
(4)
28
Continued...
Pressure forces act on area approximately equal to
CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
2
2
|
.
|

\
|
=
d
A t
(5) Diameter : d
Since PRESSURE= DRAG/AREA
( )
2
2
Drag
|
.
|

\
|
~

d
p p
s
t
With Eq. (1)
2
2
2 2
Drag
|
.
|

\
|
~

d
V t

Divide through by right hand side and DEFINE the

(6)
DRAG COEFFICIENT C
D

2
2
2 2
Drag
|
.
|

\
|
=

d
V
C
D
t

C
D
is a non-dimensional number
C
D
is a non-dimensional representation of
the drag force
29
Continued...
Notes:
Main assumption was to neglected viscosity. This means we are
dealing with Reynolds numbers for which Stokes law is NOT
applicable. Hence, we have considered high Reynolds numbers, i.e.
Re>>1. Only for these an extended wake exists.
As right-hand and left-hand side approximately equal in Eq.(6) the
drag coefficient must be of order 1 under the assumptions (Re>>1)
we made.
On previous page defined drag coefficient for a sphere. This
definition can be extended to include bodies of arbitrary shape...
General Definition of Drag (and Lift) Coefficient
Coefficient of
Drag
Lift
D
C
L
C
Area
2
2

=
V

Drag or Lift
Notes:
Carefully check exact definitions of quantities such as C
D
, C
L
or Re
Before using data found in literature! Definitions may vary!
Usually one uses projected area (cross-sectional), i.e. area one sees
when looking towards body from upstream for C
D
. But for C
L
for
airfoils one uses one uses the planform area.