7.

0 Flavour

& Colour
Flavour Colour

7.1 Flavour
a. b. c. d. e. f. Definition of Flavour Historical development of food flavourings Types of flavour Categories of flavour Functional role of flavour Methods of producing flavour materials

a. Definition of Flavour
In English, we use the term flavour in three different senses.
First, we use it to describe the sensation, the physiological and psychological response to a stimulate. Second, we use it also to refer to the stimulus itself, the properties of the substance which we perceive as the flavour of that substance. Lastly, it is the term for a particular category of substance which causes the stimulus

Sensation

Stimulus

Substance

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These senses are reflected in 2 definitions. Hall (1968) includes the sensation & stimulus:
- Flavour is the sum of those characteristics of any material taken in the mouth, perceived principally by the sense of taste and smell and also the general pain and tactile receptors in the mouth, as received and interpreted by the brain.

STIMULUS by receptor (taste and smell) SENSATION (sweet/sour/bitter/hot/umami?) RESPONSE (saliva/satisfying/sweating?)

Thats why coffee never tasted as good as we smell them.

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Society of Flavour Chemists (1969) is concerned mainly with the substance:
- A flavour is a substance which may be a single chemical entity, or a blend of chemicals of natural or synthetic origin whose primary purpose is to provide all or part of the particular flavour effect to any food or other product taken in the mouth.

b. Historical development of food flavourings

Originally, the only flavourings available were essential oils and other natural extracts. Advances in chemical analysis and synthetic organic chemistry, came an increasing number of nature-identical and synthetic flavour chemicals. This allow improved fidelity to the original materials and greater flavour intensity, stability and reproducibility.

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Around 1985, a range of natural flavour chemicals produced by enzymic, microbial or mild chemical processes became available. This resulted in good quality flavour formulations can be made whose composition closely resemble the analysis of natural extracts of the fruit.

Advantages new raw materials (more cheaper and available) can be utilised to manufacture flavours.

c. Types of Flavour
According to EC (1988a,b), there are 3 types of flavour:
i. Natural ii. Nature-identical iii. Artificial/synthetic

Flavouring Substance

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(i) Natural:
- Chemical substance with flavouring properties which is obtained by appropriate physical processes (including distillation and solvent extraction) or - enzymatic or microbiological processes from material of vegetable origin either in the raw state or after processing for human consumption by traditional food-preparation processes (including drying, torrefaction and fermentation)

Naturally present and has been identified in nature.

Example: menthol obtained from peppermint oil.
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(ii) Nature-identical:
Chemical substance with flavouring properties which is obtained by chemical synthesis or isolated by chemical processes and which is chemically identical to a substance naturally present in material of vegetable or animal origin as described in (i) Natural

.Limonene biosynthesis

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(iii) Artificial/Synthetic
Chemical substance with flavouring properties which is obtained by chemical synthesis but which is not chemically identical to a substance naturally present in material of vegetable or animal origin as described in (i)

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Synthetic limonene
Octanol + Acetic acid

Octyl Acetate (CH3COOC8H17)

Another example: ethyl vanillin Use in ice cream, confectionery and baked goods.
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According to Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008 , the flavouring means:
Flavouring substance Flavouring preparation Thermal Process flavouring Smoke flavouring
Natural Synthetic Flavouring complexes

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Flavouring Preparation
Means a product, other than the substances defined in (i) above, whether concentrated or not, with flavouring properties, which is obtained:
by appropriate physical processes (including distillation and solvent extraction) or enzymatic or microbiological processes from material of vegetable origin either in the raw state or after processing for human consumption by traditional foodpreparation processes (including drying, torrefaction [roasting] and fermentation) Flavouring preparations contain various flavouring substances originating from the sources they are obtained. Covers product such as vanilla extract and orange oil.
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Thermal Process Flavouring

Means a product which is obtained: according to good manufacturing practices by heating to a temperature not exceeding 180oC for a period not exceeding 15 minutes a mixture of ingredients, not necessarily themselves having flavouring properties, of which at least one contains nitrogen (amino) and another is a reducing sugar. It does not apply to the majority of commercial process flavours, which are heated for 1-4 hours, albeit at lower temperatures. EC, unofficially agreed that longer times at lower temperatures are appropriate and a doubling of the time for each 10oC decrease in temperature is acceptable. 17

 Means a smoke extract used in traditional foodstuffs smoking processes.

Complex mixture of smoke obtained by untreated wood to pyrolisys in a limited and controlled amount of air, dry distilled superheated steam, then subjecting the wood smoke to an aqueous extraction system or to distillation condensation and separation for collection of the aqueous phase.
It is assumed that it refers to smoke generated by a method similar to that used in traditional smoking processes that is then condensed or absorbed in a carrier to form a smoke extract. Flavouring compounds are carboxylic acids, compound with carbonyl groups and phenolic compounds.
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Smoke Flavouring

 Flavours may be classify in 7 different forms:

Aromatic chemicals Condiments Spices Concentrated fruits & Juices Oleoresins and solid extracts Essential Oils Process flavours

d. Categories of Flavours
Flavouring substance

Flavouring Preparation
Process flavouring

These multiple forms partially account for the large number of flavour additives. They give the technologist or flavourist alternative ways each with its own set of technical characteristics for achieving a particular flavour effect.

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e. Functional Role of Flavours

The functional role and values of flavours cover a broad spectrum: First, we use flavouring ingredients to create a not previously existing flavour. Eg. Coca-cola. A second role is to supplement, round out, or complement the flavour of the basic ingredients. Eg. Salads, with a salad dressing. Third, to enhance and extend the flavour of the basic food. Eg. Almond flavour in a cherry cake.

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Fourth, use flavours to replace processing losses as the top note in a juice concentrate or the aroma in an instant coffee. Fifth, use an artificial flavour to stimulate a more expensive or less practical natural flavour. Eg. Common in soft drinks and desserts. Lastly, flavours serve to cover not spoilage. Eg. Seasoning in sausage.

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f. Methods of producing flavours material

a) b) c) d) Extraction process Distillation process Biotechnology production processes Flavour precursor

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a) Extraction process
Example: coffee preparation Hot water separation of flavouring substances. Flushing them out of coffee powder. Filter then separates the solid components from the powder. Another example: deriving vanilla extract from vanilla pods. Alcohol and supercritical carbon dioxide are used as solvent.

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b) Distillation process
Distillation will separate liquid mixture by heating.

The technique is based on the fact that many substances have different boiling points.
Distillation process sees the plant or animal source material being brought to a certain, pre-determined boiling point. The steam is collected by cooling. E.g. natural citral from lemon grass oil.
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c) Biotechnology production processes

Micro-organisms such as lactic acid bacteria or enzymes acting as biocatalysts.

By enzyme and/or fermentation reactions. Eg. Conversion of ethanol into vinegar and enzyme-modified cheese flavours.

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d) Flavour precursor
Compounding appropriate precursor molecules, usually various sugars, amino acid sources and sulfur-containing compounds, Heating or cooking to accelerate chemical reactions, such as the Maillard reaction, that form the required mixture of flavour materials called process flavours. Eg. Savoury flavour.

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7.2 Colour
a. Natural colours
Anthocyanins (blue-red) Carotenoids (yellow-orange-red) Betalains (Red-purple) Chlorophylls (Green)

b. Artificial colours

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a. Natural Colours
Colour is one of the first characteristics perceived by consumer and as a means of identification and, ultimately, acceptance of a food product. Both the quality and the flavour of food are closely are closely associate with colour. Natural colours are those extracted from animal, vegetable or mineral sources. They often lack consistency of shade, light and heat stability and may introduce undesirable flavours into food products.
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Anthocyanins
Anthocyanins are the intense red, purple and blue pigments found in many fruits, vegetable and flowers such as grapes and cranberries. These pigments undergo reversible structural transformations with a change in pH manifested by strikingly different absorbance spectra.

They are suited for use in acidic foods such as preserves, fruit toppings, pickles and dairy products.

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Colour Source Colour pigments Solubility Stability Red, purple and blue Red cabbage, Strawberries, Grape skin, Blueberries, Raspberries Cyanidin, Delphinidin, Malyidin, Peonidin, Petunidin, pelargonidin Soluble in aqueous solutions Each pigment has different stability Brighter in lower pH range. Becomes blue at higher pH Antimicrobial properties, antioxidant properties and anti-cancer properties

Other properties

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Carotenoids
Carotenoids are the yellow, orange and red pigments in a large variety of plants and animals, including carrots, tomatoes, paprika, annatto and red salmon. They are very susceptible to oxidation because of their chemical structure. However, synthetically processed beta-carotene is protected from oxidation and is extensively used in butter, margarine, processed cheese, beverages, desserts and many other applications.

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Colour Red, yellow and orange

Common Types

Beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, carotene, lycopene, lutein, crpytoxanthin, zeaxanthin and astaxanthin Carrots, sweet potatoes, spinach and tomatoes Fat and Oil

Source

Stability

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Betalains
Betalains are found in certain plants but the most common source is beets and red dragon fruits. Betalains are sensitive to pH, heat and light.

Red beet (betanin) is used in frozen or chilled dairy products such as ice-cream, yoghurt and flavoured milks.

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Colour Source Colour Pigments Solubility Stability Bluish-Red Beet Root Betanin Water, ethanol, propylene glycol Stable at higher pH. Sensitive to light and heat
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It is a rather stable colorant for products with 3.5 9.0 pH range. It has a mild flavour characteristics to beet root.

It is best stored in frozen form away from light and has a longer lifespan if stored under -18oC.
Acidic conditions brighten the colour and it is available in powder as well as liquid form.

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Chlorophylls
The most abundant naturally occurring plant pigments, are the green colour in green plants. They are sensitive to acid and light and are not very useful as food colours. Application include soups, sauces, jellies, pickles and pet foods.

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Colour Natural green

Source
Solubility

Grass and alfalfa

Water

Application

Pastas, confectionary

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b. Artificial Colours
Artificial colours are normally very pure chemicals with standardized colour strengths. They are available as powders, pastes, granules, and solutions.

Water solouble colours are used in a wide range of food applications, including desserts, confectionary, beverages, baked goods, condiments, snack foods, processed meats and cheeses, candy, pharmaceuticals and many other foods.

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They offer good stability, consistency, economical to use and are generally compatible with each other in blends. Concern for consumers safety is a universal commonality among legislators as well as users of food colourant. Colours that are considered safe in one country may not be considered safe in another. It is absolutely necessary to review and understand local regulatory limitations when choosing food colours.

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Learning Outcomes
Students are able to:
Define the term of flavour Tell the historical development of food flavouring Differentiate between the types and categories of flavour Explain the functional role of flavour Examine the methods can be used in producing flavour materials

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