INTRODUCTION

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Building is a structural framework which is designed to sustain the various loading type and condition while maintaining its serviceability condition.

INTRODUCTION
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The duration which a building is able sustain all the loads exerted on it without structural failure or impairment of its aesthetic appearance is the Serviceability Duration of a building.

INTRODUCTION
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The Serviceability Duration of a building is usually 80-100 years depending on the design and quality of material used.

INTRODUCTION
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The design of a building structure is usually initiated with the

Consideration on the type and nature of load acting on the structure The estimation of the quantitative magnitude of load on building. The transfer mode of load between its structural elements

TYPE OF LOAD ON BUILDING

We l e a d LOAD ON BUILDING

Permanent

Variable

Fire and Weathering Deterioration

Structural weight

Variable gravity load

Lateral loading

Finishing weight

Human occupants

Architectural components

Furnishing, storage, machinery and equipment

PERMANENT LOAD
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Permanent load of a building is the type of load with magnitude and loading condition which is relatively stable throughout the service life of the building.

PERMANENT LOAD
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Permanent load of a building include:

The self-weight of the structural components (Truss, Beam, Slab, Column and Foundation System) Architectural components namely Cladding Internal and external partition (Concrete or brick walls) Ceilings Finishes of floor and walls of building

PERMANENT LOAD
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The magnitude of the permanent load of a building can be accurately calculated from the architectural layout plan and the preliminary structural design drawing.

PERMANENT LOAD
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The calculation of dead load is usually performed in a conservative manner. So that the design specification of a structural element need not change due to slight alteration of the structural member size.

PERMANENT LOAD
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The permanent load of a structural element, architectural component and finishing can be calculated based on:
The volume of the component considered and; The bulk density of material used.

PERMANENT LOAD
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Due to the accuracy of the permanent load estimation and the stable nature of the load, the design safety factor used for permanent load is : 1.4x (Total Permanent Load)

VARIABLE LOAD
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Variable load of a building is the type of load with magnitude and loading condition which is relatively transient and not constant in magnitude.

VARIABLE LOAD
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Variable load of a building can be divided into two subcategories

Variable gravity load Variable lateral load

VARIABLE GRAVITY LOAD

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Variable gravity load is the vertical load acting on a building by:

Human Occupants of the building Moveable storage, machinery and equipments

VARIABLE GRAVITY LOAD

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The magnitude of the variable gravity load of a building cannot be determined accurately. However, it can be conservatively estimated based on standard code of practice (BS 6399-Part 1-Table 1)

VARIABLE GRAVITY LOAD

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The magnitude of variable gravity load can sometimes be determined from the past experience of the structural engineer.

VARIABLE GRAVITYLOAD
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The variable gravity load acting on a building structure can be determined based on:
The floor use of a building as specified in the architectural drawing; The proposed height of storage. The weight of the moveable machinery and equipement

VARIABLE GRAVITY LOAD

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Due to the inaccuracy of the variable gravity load estimation the design safety factor used for variable gravity load is higher at: 1.6x (Total Permanent Load)

GRAVITY LOAD CALCULATION

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VARIABLE LATERAL LOAD

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The consideration on the lateral load on a building is essential for the design of tall building structure (>6 storey) The two dominant types of variable lateral load are:
Wind Load Seismic load

VARIABLE LATERAL LOAD

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Wind load
Wind load is induced on a building by movement of air. The governing factors that defines the magnitude of wind load are
Wind speed Direction of wind flow with respect to the building Altitude of site Geometry of building

VARIABLE LATERAL LOAD

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Wind load
The magnitude of wind load will be higher for a higher wind speed Similarly the magnitude of wind load increases with higher angle of contact between the direction of wind flow and the face of the building.

VARIABLE LATERAL LOAD

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Wind load
For a tall building structure, the wind load varies from zero at the base of the building to the maximum magnitude at the top of the building. This is similar to the nature of wind speed variation over the height of the building.

VARIABLE LATERAL LOAD

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Wind load
For building located at high altitude site, the average wind speed passing the building will generally be higher, hence, a higher imposed wind load.

VARIABLE LATERAL LOAD

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Wind load
The magnitude of wind load is also strongly governed by the plan geometry of the building. Building with well designed dynamic geometry will have lower dynamic drag coefficient, hence, lower magnitude of wind load.

VARIABLE LATERAL LOAD

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Seismic load
In an event of earthquake, there are two main types of ground wave generated namely:
P-Wave: Compressional waves that are longitudinal in nature. This is the first wave that arrive at the seismic station first due to its higher velocity, hence, called the primary wave. This type of wave does not trigger massive ground movement.

VARIABLE LATERAL LOAD

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Seismic load
In an event of earthquake, there are two main types of ground wave generated namely:
S-Wave: Transverse wave that displace the ground perpendicularly to the direction of wave propagation.

VARIABLE LATERAL LOAD

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Seismic load
Seismic load is induced on a building by the ground movement triggered by an earthquake. The ground movement is usually induced by the propagation of the S-Wave within the ground mass from the epicenter of an earthquake.

VARIABLE LATERAL LOAD

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Seismic load
The governing factors that defines the magnitude of seismic load are
Total mass of a building Magnitude of earth vibration The natural frequency of a building structure

VARIABLE LATERAL LOAD

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Seismic load
The magnitude of seismic load will be higher for a heavier structure Similarly the magnitude of seismic load increases with the higher magnitude of earth movement (Measured in Richter Scale)

VARIABLE LATERAL LOAD

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Seismic load The natural frequency of a building structure is the vibration frequency of the building when set to vibrate on its own with a small displacement. A building will vibrate with maximum amplitude of vibration when the frequency of seismic movement is similar to its natural frequency.

VARIABLE LATERAL LOAD

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Seismic load
The large amplitude of building vibration may result in the failure of building system and final collapse of the building under seismic load.

VARIABLE LATERAL LOAD

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Seismic load
The common measures taken to mitigate the seismic load on building structure are:
Reduction of the self weight of a building using timber as construction material. The use of high ductility steel structure for building construction. Design of a robust lateral restrain for tall building structure Installation of seismic isolation system

VARIABLE LATERAL LOAD

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Seismic Isolation System

The seismic isolation system is a sophisticated structural system which is installed in between the ground columns and the foundation of a building. The seismic isolation system is usually made of rubber block, laminated rubber or roller unit.

VARIABLE LATERAL LOAD

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Seismic Isolation System

The mechanism of seismic load mitigation:
Alteration on the natural frequency of a building Partial detachment of the base of the building from the ground, hence, minimizing the transfer of ground vibration to the building mainframe structure. Damping of the buildings vibration

FIRE AND WEATHERING LOAD ON BUILDING

Fire and weathering are not physical load exerted on a building structure. However, the event of fire in a building and the corrosive action of weathering agents will cause deterioration to the load bearing capacity of the structural elements of a building.

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FIRE AND WEATHERING LOAD ON BUILDING

Hence, due consideration shall be given to the design of a building structural mainframe to remain stable during the event of fire. This is to ensure adequate time allocated for the evacuation of the building occupants

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FIRE AND WEATHERING LOAD ON BUILDING

Similarly, for steel structure, BS EN1993 and EN1994 prescribe a standard surface treatment procedure for fire resistance.

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FIRE AND WEATHERING LOAD ON BUILDING

For reinforced concrete structure, BS 8110 prescribe a minimum concrete cover thickness of 25 mm for RC structural element to remain in serviceability condition for 2 hours in the event of fire.

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FIRE AND WEATHERING LOAD ON BUILDING

The most common weathering deterioration that may affect the load bearing capacity of a building is the corrosion of steel members and reinforcements. The corrosion of steel may reduce the load bearing capacity of a structural element by 20-40 % according to the severity of corrosion.

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FIRE AND WEATHERING LOAD ON BUILDING

Hence, the British Standards BS 8110 prescribe a minimum concrete cover depth of 20 mm for RC structural member to prevent corrosion of steel reinforcements. For RC structural subjected to marine exposure and ground water exposure, the minimum concrete cover depth required is 40 mm.

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Thank you

Presented by DR CHEAH CHEE BAN | SENIOR LECTURER SCHOOL OF HOUSING BUILDING AND PLANNING