Non Ferrous Alloys

Non- Ferrous Alloys

Nonferrous metals and their alloys do not contain iron as a principle ingredient, certain cases as impurity or alloy.

Copper and copper-based alloys

Copper and copper-based alloys, possessing a desirable combination of Physical
properties, variety of applications since antiquity. Unalloyed copper is so soft and ductile that it is difficult to machine; also, it

has an almost unlimited capacity to be cold worked.

Furthermore, it is highly resistant to corrosion in diverse environments including the ambient atmosphere, seawater, and some industrial chemicals.

The mechanical and corrosion-resistance properties of copper may be improved by alloying.

Most copper alloys cannot be hardened or strengthened by heat-treating procedures; consequently, cold working and/or solid-solution alloying must be utilized to improve these mechanical properties.

Copper alloys
1. Brasses alloy of Copper and Zinc (i) Alpha Brasses alloy of Cu and Zn upto 36 % Zn a) Yellow alpha Brasses ----- 20-36 % Zn b) Red Brasses ------ 5- 20 % Zn

(ii)Alpha plus Beta Brass- 54 62 % Zn 2. Bronzes A) Tin Bronzes B)SiliconBronzes C)Aluminium Bronzes D)Berylium Bronzes 3. Cupronickels alloys of Cu and Ni 4.Nickel Silvers Alloy of Cu-Ni-Zn

Cartridge brass

Cartridge brass- Alpha phase(twinned)

Phosphor bronze, 5% Sn Structure consists of recrystallized grains with annealing twins.

Muntz metal ingot, as-cast. Structure is dendrites of phase in a matrix of phase.

Cu-Zn (Brass)
Alpha Brass: The alpha phase is stable for concentrations up to approximately 35 wt% Zn. (Zn-Sub solid solu.) This phase has an FCC crystal structure, and brasses are relatively soft, ductile, and easily cold worked. Alpha+Beta Brass: Brass alloys having alpha and beta higher zinc content contain both Alpha+Beta phases at room temperature. The phase has an ordered BCC crystal structure and is harder and stronger than the phase; Consequently, alloys are generally hot worked.

Common brasses are yellow, naval, and cartridge brass, muntz metal, and gilding metal.

Cu-Sn (Bronze)
The bronzes are alloys of copper and several other elements, including tin, aluminum, silicon, and nickel. These alloys are somewhat stronger than the brasses, yet they still have a high degree of corrosion resistance. Generally they are utilized when, in addition to corrosion resistance, good tensile properties are required.

The most common precipitation hardenable copper alloys are the Beryllium Copper: (beryllium-1.0 and 2.5 wt%. Costly bec. of beryllium) They possess a remarkable combination of properties: tensile strengths as high as 1400 Mpa excellent electrical and corrosion properties, and wear resistance when properly lubricated; they may be cast, hot worked, or cold worked. High strengths are attained by precipitation-hardening heat treatments. Applications : Jet aircraft landing gear bearings and bushings, springs, and surgical and dental instruments.

Tin (Sn)
White Soft Good Corrosion resistance Good Lubricating properties Alpha and beta tin (Tetragonal to cubic at ~ 13 C, called tin pest Density 7.30 to 5.75 gm/cm3) (impurities retards/delay ) Extracted from Cassiterite (SnO2)

Tin
Properties Yield Stength %El Melting point Hardness Density Value 11 Mpa 57 % 231.9C 3.9 HB 7.16 gm/cm3

Tinplate - 40% of total world tin consumption. Alloys Solders, Bearing alloys, Copper alloys, others.

Tin alloys
Alloy Composition
70% Sn, 30 % Pb 91 % Sn, 4.5 % Sb, 4.5 % Cu 90-95% Sn, 1-3 % Cu Bal % Sb,

Application

Extra Informations Sn and Pb (6040,70-30,63-37) Alloyed with Cu (marine app), Pb(increases plasticity)

Soft Solder

Solders

Tin Babbitt

Beari ngs (IC engine big end bearings)

Pewter

High grade bearing Alloy

(Pb Avoided Toxicity)

Soft Solder (Sn-37Pb)

Sn-37Pb alloy (eutectic soft solder). Structure shows globules of lead-rich solid solution (dark), some of which exhibit a slightly dendritic structure, in a matrix of tin.

Soft Solder (Sn-37Pb)

Tin alloy with 10% Sb, cast in sand. Primary grains of a -phase (white squares) on a background of a peritectic -phase. At the boundaries, secondary (SnSb) is prominent, which is formed because of a decrease in the solubility of antimony from solid solution.

Pewter Alloy

Sn-6Sb-2Cu alloy (pewter). Cored dendrites are tin-rich solid solution that contain needles of white Cu6Sn5. The matrix is coarse Sn-Cu6Sn5 eutectic.

Tin Babbit
Tin has a low coefficient of friction, which is the first consideration in its use as a bearing material. Tin structurally a weak metal, alloyed with Cu and Sb for increased hardness, tensile strength and fatigue resistance.

Lead -0.35 to 0.5% to avoid formation tin-lead eutectic, reduce strength at operating temperatures.

Lead (Pb)
Heavy Weight ( weights and counter balances) High density -11.5 gm/cm3 ( Shielding) Soft, Malleable, Low melting point, low strength, lubricating properties High corrosion resistance Large Tonnage Storage Bateries. Ammunition. Large quantities of lead are used in ammunition for both military and sporting purposes. Extracted from Galena ore (PbS)

Lead Alloys
Alloy Soft Solder Composition 40 Pb% 60 Sn% 85 Pb% 5 Sn% 10 Sb% 10-25 %Sn Application Solders Light loads- Car Journal Bearings Roofing and automotive fuel tank Cable Sheathing , Storage Battery grids (Corrosion and mechanical protection) Extra Informations

%Sn and %Pb (50-50, 95-5,8020,)

Arsenic alloyed (load & elevated )

Lead Babbitt

Sn-Pb

Antimonial Lead

1-9% Sb

Titanium (Ti)
Good tensile strength, Creep resistance and toughness Resistance to erosion and erosion-corrosion (Very thin, oxide surface film) Melting point -1678C , Crystal Structure HCP (), Cubic at 882 C () 80% in Aerospace Industry.

Titanium (Ti)
Back bone material for aerospace, energy, and chemical industries. The best material choice for many critical applications Ti alloys -static and rotating gas turbine engine components. Most critical and highly-stressed civilian and military airframe parts and implants (medical) High strength-to-weight ratio, excellent mechanical properties( Fatigue ) , corrosion resistance makes titanium.

Titanium Alloys
Alpha Alloy (Stabilizers Al, O, C, N) Alpha+ Beta alloy Beta alloy (Stabilizers Cr, Mo, V, Mn, Fe)

Titanium Alloys
Alloy Composition Application Aircraft Tail pipe assembly, Missile fuel tank, Airframes Aircraft parts Connecting rods in internal combustion Engines, Aircraft Gas turbine compressor blades and disks. Extra In formations Al Strength, Hot workabilty by Sn Stronger than alloys, Age hardened (+) Alpha Alloy Ti 5Al 2.5 Sn Ti 8 Mn

Alpha+ Beta alloy

Alpha+ Beta alloy

Ti 6Al 4 V 0.2 Fe and O

Titanium Martensite (alpha prime )+

Beta alloy

Ti 3Al 13 V 11 Cr

High strength Fasteners and aerospace components

+Aging forms TiCr2 and precipites

Ti-6Al-4V forging. (a) Solution treated 1 h at 955 C (1750 F), air cooled, and annealed 2 h at 705 C (1300 F). Equiaxed alpha grains (light) in transformed beta matrix (dark) containing coarse , acicular alpha. (b) Same as in (a), except water quenched from the solution treatment (before the anneal) instead of air cooled. Structure is similar to that in (a), but the faster cooling resulted in finer acicular alpha in the transformed beta. Both etched with Kroll's reagent

Nickel alloys Aluminium alloys Magnesium alloys

Nickel
Crystal structure FCC Density (g/cm3) 8.89 Melting point 1455 C Silvery shiny appearance High toughness and ductility Good high and low temperature strength

Nickel
High oxidation resistance Good corrosion resistance Ferro-magnetic Relatively high cost Not mixed with cheap alloying elements.

Nickel
Applications required necessary corrosion or heatresisting properties and for special engineering applications. Chemical plant, heat exchanger, reaction furnace, rotary kiln, turbine blades. Solid Solution with many alloys. Used as alloying elements in stainless steels, and in other elements such as copper, cobalt, chromium, etc. (60% use) Ni coating (Corrosion and wear)

Nickel
1. Pure Nickel (99.99% Ni, UTS-317 MN/m2,Y.S 58.65 MN/m2 %E 30%) 2. A Nickel (1.5%Si Improve fluidity and castability) 3. D Nickel ( 2-4.5% Mn high temp - Improve resist to atmospheric attack
sulphur compounds)

4. Duranickel ( Age Hardenable -4.5 Al High Strng,CR,Hard(HRC 45), retains

ductility a low temp)

5. Permanickel ( Age Hardenable High Strng,CR ,High Electrical and thermal

conductivity)

Nickel Alloys
Classification There are different types of nickel and nickel alloys; 1) Commercially pure nickel 2) Nickel-Cu alloys (Monels) 3) Nickel-Cr- Fe alloys 4) Nickel-Mo-Fe alloys 5) Nickel-Si alloys

Ni Cu Alloys
Monel 2/3 Ni and 1/3 Cu) High Strngth, CR to atmp, acids, alkalines, brine, water, food product, Dil H2SO4, phosphoric acids, clorinaed hydrocarbons. Not resistance to nitric acid, Chromic acid, Cyanide solution, Ferric Chloride. High res to super heated steam, and retains strength at HT. Application : Turbine blades, marine. Oil refining, chemical plan, Paper and pulp Etc.,

Ni Cu Alloys
Alloy
R monel

Composition
High Sulphur (0.035 %S)

Properties
S-Macinabitity , not dec CR or stngth

Application
Automatic Screw Machining bolts, Precision parts

K Monel

30 % Cu, 2.75 %Al, Age Hardnable, 0.45 % Ti High CR with good MP, Non magnetic,

Marine pump shafts, Surgical blades, Ball Bearings, Wearing Sleeves

H Monel Cast Turbine Nozzles S Monel Bushing and disc at HT, Pump liners.

H , S Monel

H Monel (3 % Si) S Monel (4 % Si)Age Hard

Si Improves Castability. High ductiliy with high hardness,CR and Erosion Res.

R-Monel

Monel R-405, cold drawn, and annealed in a continuous process at 830 C Microstructure: nickel-copper solid solution with sulfide stringers

Ni Cr Fe Alloys
Alloy Chromel A or Nichrome V Composition 80 Ni 20 Cr Properties Application Electric heating elements CR (Caustic soda,Dil HCl,HNO3), Strgth, Toughness, Atm and HT OR Exhaust manifold of airplane engines, Heaters and conders in chemical industries. Spring at 480 C

Inconel

76 Ni 16Cr 8 Fe

Super alloy ( inconel X)

Age Hardenable

High Strength at HT

Jet propulsion parts, Gas turbines

Ni- Mo-Fe Alloys

Alloy Composition Properties Strength and Ductility Comparable o alloy steel (Ex: 500 Mpa, 10% El 180 BHN) Application Components for boiling acids Ex: Agitators, mixers, condensers, heat exchangers

Hastealloy A

57Ni 20Fe 20 Mo 2Mn 1 Si 0.15 C

Ni- Si Alloys
Alloy Composition Properties Strength and Tough and extremely hard (820 Mpa, 321 BHN) Application

Hastealloy D

85Ni 10Si 3 Cu

Handle acids hot and cold H2SO4, Acetic and phosphoric acids (Ex: pipelines, fittings, Reaction vessels)

Replica electron micrograph of Inconel X-750, solution annealed 2 h at 1150 C and air cooled. (a) Aged 24 h at 815 C Structure is small, uniformly dispersed precipitate and large, discontinuous M23C6 carbide at the grain boundary. (b) Aged 24 h at 845 C (1550 F), then 24 h at 705C . Grain-boundary M23C6 carbide is stabilized, and precipitation of fine particles has increased. Both glyceregia. Original magnification, both 15,000

Aluminium Alloys
Advantages

Low Density, Higher strength-weight ratio = tensile strength/dens Good corrosion resistance Good electrical and thermal conductivity Good machinability and workability

Automotive and aircraft applications

Wrought alloys-shaped by plastic deformation Cast Alloy-Good Fluidity , castability

1xxx Commercially pure Al 2xxx- Al-Cu 3xxx- Al-Mn 4xxx- Al-Si 5xxx-Al-Mg 6xxx-Al-Mg-Si 7xxx-Al-Mg-Si Casting Alloys

F-As fabricated O-Annealed H-Cold worked W-solution treated T-Age hardened

Age hardenable- Strengthened by heat treatment Non age hardenable- Strengthened by solid solution strengthening, strain hardening, grain size control

Al-Cu

Aluminum corner of the aluminum-copper phase diagram. Eutectic composition (not shown) is at 33 wt% (17 at.%) Cu.

Ai-Si Alloys

Aluminum-silicon phase diagram and cast microstructures of hypoeutectic compositions (<12%Si), hypereutectic compositions (>12% Si), and one close to the eutectic composition of 12% Si

Modification of Si needles into globular particles

Effect of sodium modification on microstructure of sand-cast aluminum-silicon hypoeutectic alloy 356-F. Both specimens were etched in 0.5% hydrofluoric acid and are shown at 100. (a) As-caststructure in unmodified alloy consists of a network of silicon particles (sharp gray), which formed in theinterdendritic aluminum-silicon eutectic. (b) Modified alloy by addition of 0.025% Na to the melt. Constituents are the same as in (a), but the particles of silicon are smaller and less angular

Al-Li alloys
Lithium density -0.534 g/cm3 Light weight Maximum strength Max 4%addition Heat treatable

Poor fracture toughness

Applications
Type
1050/1200 2014A 3103/3003

Application
Food and chemical industry Airframes. Vehicle paneling, structures exposed to marine atmospheres, mine cages. Architectural extrusions (internal and external), window frames, irrigation pipes Stressed structural members, bridges, cranes, roof trusses, beer barrels.

6063

6061/6082

7020

Armoured vehicles, military bridges, motor cycle and bicycle frames.

Magnesium alloys
Advantages
Low Density, Higher strength-weight ratio = tensile strength/density Hazard during casting and machining-easily combines with O2 Poor corrosion resistance Poor fatigue ,creep and wear resistance Low strength and toughness Alloying with Al, Zn, Mn and rare earth elements Aerospace applications, high-speed machinery, transportation and materials handling equipment

Introduction to Nondestructive Testing

Outline
Introduction to NDT Overview of Six Most Common NDT Methods Selected Applications

Definition of NDT
The use of noninvasive techniques to determine the integrity of a material, component or structure or quantitatively measure some characteristic of an object.
i.e. Inspect or measure without doing harm.

Various Energy Forms utilized in NDT

1. Optical light 2. Capillary action of liquids 3. Magnetic energy 4. Electrical and Electromagnetic energy 5. Ultra Sound energy 6. Penetrating Light (Waves) energy 7. Penetrating Particle energy 8. Microwaves 9. Infra Red waves 10.Thermal energy 11.Pressure

Methods of NDT
Visual

NDT METHODS
Method Visual Dye Penetrant Energy Light Capillary action Applicability All materials All materials Detectability Surface flaws Surface & subsurface flaws Results Qualitative Qualitative

Magnetic Particle
Eddy Current Ultrasonic

Magnetism

FerroMagnetic

Surface & subsurface flaws

Surface & subsurface flaws Surface & internal flaws

Qualitative
Semi Quantitative Quantitative

Electromagn Electrically etic induction conductive Non-audible Sound All materials

Radiography
Acoustic Emission

Penetrating waves / rays

Non-audible Sound

All materials
All materials All materials

Surface & internal flaws

Surface & internal flaws Surface & internal flaws

Quantitative
Quantitative

IR IR waves Thermography

Leak testing

Pressure

All materials

Surface & internal flaws

Qualitative

What are Some Uses of NDE Methods?

Flaw Detection and Evaluation

Leak Detection
Location Determination Dimensional Measurements
Fluorescent penetrant indication

Structure and Microstructure Characterization

Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements Material Sorting and Chemical Composition Determination

When are NDE Methods Used?

To assist in product development To screen or sort incoming materials To monitor, improve or control manufacturing processes

To verify proper processing such as heat treating

To verify proper assembly To inspect for in-service damage

NDT Vs Mechanical Testing

No damage to the components tested Mainly for Flaw analysis, material sorting

No need of sample preparation Actual components are

subjected to testing No need of statistical concepts Most of the NDT techniques are portable Excellent interpretation is required

STANDARDS / CODES
ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code Section V
Subsection A Article 1 General Requirements Article 2 Radiography Testing Article 4 Ultrasonic Testing of weldments Article 5 Ultrasonic Testing of materials Article 6 Liquid Penetrant Testing Article 7 Magnetic Particle Testing Article 8 Eddy current Testing Article 9 Visual Testing Article 10 Leak Testing Article 11 & 12 Acoustic Emission Testing Article 16 Magnetic Flux Leakage Testing Article 17 Remote Field Testing

Subsection B Article 22 Radiography Standards Article 23 Ultrasonic Standards Article 24 Liquid Penetrant Testing Standards Article 25 Magnetic Particle Testing Standards Article 26 Eddy current Testing Standards Article 29 Acoustic Emission Testing Standards

ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII Acceptance criteria ASTM Standards API Standards ASNT Standards US military and Aircraft standards

BASIC COMPONENTS OF NDT

1. CLEANING the surface
2. APPLICATION of the energy medium on / into the object 3. INTERACTION between the energy medium and object 4. MODIFICATION of the energy medium by the object 5. DETECTION of the modified results

6. CONVERTION of the results into readable format

7. INTERPRETATION of the results

8. CONCLUSION about the objects integrity

9. POST PROCESSING of the object

Six Most Common NDT Methods

Visual Inspection (VT) Liquid Penetrant Testing (LPT) Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT) Ultrasonic Testing (UT) Eddy Current Testing (ET) X-ray Radiography (RT)

Visual Inspection
Most basic and common inspection method. Tools include fiberscopes, borescopes, magnifying glasses and mirrors. Portable video inspection unit with zoom allows inspection of large tanks and vessels, railroad tank cars, sewer lines. Robotic crawlers permit observation in hazardous or tight areas, such as air ducts, reactors, pipelines.

Liquid Penetrant Inspection

A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is applied to the surface of the part and allowed time to seep into surface breaking defects. The excess liquid is removed from the surface of the part. A developer (powder) is applied to pull the trapped penetrant out the defect and spread it on the surface where it can be seen. Visual inspection is the final step in the process. The penetrant used is often loaded with a fluorescent dye and the inspection is done under UV light to increase test sensitivity.

Magnetic Particle Inspection

The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment are then applied to the specimen. These particles are attracted to magnetic flux leakage fields and will cluster to form an indication directly over the discontinuity. This indication can be visually detected under proper lighting conditions.

Magnetic Particle Crack Indications

Radiography
The radiation used in radiography testing is a higher energy (shorter wavelength) version of the electromagnetic waves that we see as visible light. The radiation can come from an X-ray generator or a radioactive source.
High Electrical Potential Electrons + -

X-ray Generator or Radioactive Source Creates Radiation

Radiation Penetrate the Sample

Exposure Recording Device

Film Radiography
The part is placed between the radiation source and a piece of film. The part will stop some of the radiation. Thicker and more dense area will stop more of the radiation. The film darkness (density) will vary with the amount of radiation reaching the film through the test object. = less exposure

X-ray film

= more exposure
Top view of developed film

Radiographic Images

Eddy Current Testing

Coil's magnetic field

Coil

Eddy current's magnetic field

Eddy currents Conductive material

Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting surface cracks but can also be used to make electrical conductivity and coating thickness measurements. Here a small surface probe is scanned over the part surface in an attempt to detect a crack.

Ultrasonic Inspection (Pulse-Echo)

High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material and they are reflected back from surfaces or flaws. Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and inspector can visualize a cross section of the specimen f showing the depth of features that reflect sound.
initial pulse

crack echo

back surface echo

crack
0 2 4 6 8 10

plate

Oscilloscope, or flaw detector screen

Ultrasonic Imaging
High resolution images can be produced by plotting signal strength or time-of-flight using a computercontrolled scanning system.

Gray scale image produced using the sound reflected from the front surface of the coin

Gray scale image produced using the sound reflected from the back surface of the coin (inspected from heads side)

Common Applications of NDT

Inspection of Raw Products Inspection Following Secondary Processing In-Services Damage Inspection

Inspection of Raw Products

Forgings, Castings, Extrusions, etc.

Inspection Following Secondary Processing

Machining Welding Grinding Heat treating Plating etc.

Inspection For In-Service Damage

Cracking Corrosion Erosion/Wear Heat Damage etc.

Power Plant Inspection

Periodically, power plants are shutdown for inspection. Inspectors feed eddy current probes into heat exchanger tubes to check for corrosion damage.

Pipe with damage

Probe
Signals produced by various amounts of corrosion thinning.

Wire Rope Inspection

Electromagnetic devices and visual inspections are used to find broken wires and other damage to the wire rope that is used in chairlifts, cranes and other lifting devices.

Storage Tank Inspection

Robotic crawlers use ultrasound to inspect the walls of large above ground tanks for signs of thinning due to corrosion. Cameras on long articulating arms are used to inspect underground storage tanks for damage.

Aircraft Inspection
Nondestructive testing is used extensively during the manufacturing of aircraft. NDT is also used to find cracks and corrosion damage during operation of the aircraft. A fatigue crack that started at the site of a lightning strike is shown below.

Jet Engine Inspection

Aircraft engines are overhauled after being in service for a period of time. They are completely disassembled, cleaned, inspected and then reassembled. Fluorescent penetrant inspection is used to check many of the parts for cracking.

Crash of United Flight 232 Sioux City, Iowa, July 19, 1989
A defect that went undetected in an engine disk was responsible for the crash of United Flight 232.

Pressure Vessel Inspection

The failure of a pressure vessel can result in the rapid release of a large amount of energy. To protect against this dangerous event, the tanks are inspected using radiography and ultrasonic testing.

Rail Inspection
Special cars are used to inspect thousands of miles of rail to find cracks that could lead to a derailment.

Bridge Inspection
The US has 578,000 highway bridges. Corrosion, cracking and other damage can all affect a bridges performance. The collapse of the Silver Bridge in 1967 resulted in loss of 47 lives. Bridges get a visual inspection about every 2 years.

Some bridges are fitted with acoustic emission sensors that listen for sounds of cracks growing.

Pipeline Inspection
NDT is used to inspect pipelines to prevent leaks that could damage the environment. Visual inspection, radiography and electromagnetic testing are some of the NDT methods used.

Remote visual inspection using a robotic crawler.

Magnetic flux leakage inspection. This device, known as a pig, is placed in the pipeline and collects data on the condition of the pipe as it is pushed along by whatever is being transported.

Radiography of weld joints.

Special Measurements
Boeing employees in Philadelphia were given the privilege of evaluating the Liberty Bell for damage using NDT techniques. Eddy current methods were used to measure the electrical conductivity of the Bell's bronze casing at various points to evaluate its uniformity.

Thank You