1

3.7 Diffraction
allows RF signals to propagate to obstructed (shadowed) regions
- over the horizon (around curved surface of earth)
- behind obstructions
received field strength rapidly decreases as receiver moves into
obstructed region
diffraction field often has sufficient strength to produce useful signal
Segments
3.7.1 Fresnel Zone Geometry
2
Huygens Principal
all points on a wavefront can be considered as point sources for
producing 2
nd
ry wavelets
2
nd
ry wavelets combine to produce new wavefront in the direction
of propagation
diffraction arises from propagation of 2
nd
ry wavefront into
shadowed area
field strength of diffracted wave in shadow region = E electric field
components of all 2
nd
ry wavelets in the space around the obstacle
slit knife edge
3
Excess Path Length = difference between direct path & diffracted path
A = Ad (d
1
+d
2
)
3.7.1 Fresnel Zone Geometry
consider a transmitter-receiver pair in free space
let obstruction of effective height h & width ~ protrude to page
- distance from transmitter = d
1

- distance from receiver = d
2
- LOS distance between transmitter & receiver = d = d
1
+d
2

Knife Edge Diffraction Geometry for h
t
= h
r
h

TX RX
h
r
h
t
d
2
d
1
h
obs
Ad
Ad = A d
1
+ A d
2,
where ,
2 2
i
d h + A d
i
=
2
1
2
d h + A =
2
2
2
d h + +
(d
1
+d
2
)
4
Phase Difference between two paths given as
3.54
|
|
.
|

\
| +
2 1
2 1
2
2 d d
d d h
A ~
Assume h << d
1 ,
h << d
2
and h >> then by substitution and Taylor
Series Approximation
Knife Edge Diffraction Geometry h
t
> h
r
o
d
2
d
1
|

h

TX
RX
h
r
h
t
h
obs
h

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
A
2 1
2 1
2
2
2 2
d d
d d h

t
| =
3.55
=
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
2 1
2 1
2
2
2 d d
d d
h

t
5
(0.4 rad 23
o
)
x = 0.4 rad tan(x) = 0.423
tan(x)
x
when tan x ~ x o = | +
o ~
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= +
2 1
2 1
2 1
d d
d d
h
d
h
d
h
Equivalent Knife Edge Diffraction Geometry with h
r
subtracted from
all other heights


o
d
2
d
1
TX
RX
h
t
-h
r
|
h
obs
-h
r
180-o
tan | = ~ |
1
d
h
tan = ~
2
d
h
6
Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter, v
) (
2

) ( 2
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
d d
d d
d d
d d
h
+
=
+

v = (3.56)
when o is in units of radians | is given as
| =
2
2
v
t
(3.57)
from equations 3.54-3.57 | , the phase difference, between LOS &
diffracted path is function of
obstructions height & position
transmitters & receivers height & position
simplify geometry by reducing all heights to minimum height
7
(1) Fresnel Zones
used to describe diffraction loss as a function of path difference, A
around an obstruction
represents successive regions between transmitter and receiver
n
th
region = region where path length of secondary waves is n/2
greater than total LOS path length
regions form a series of ellipsoids with foci at Tx & Rx
/2 + d
1.5 + d
d
+ d
at 1 GHz = 0.3m
8
Construct circles on the axis of Tx-Rx such that A = n/2, for given integer n
radii of circles depends on location of normal plane between Tx and Rx
given n, the set of points where A = n/2 defines a family of ellipsoids
assuming d
1
,d
2
>> r
n
A =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2 1
2 1
2
2 2 d d
d d h n
T
R
slice an ellipsoid with a plane yields circle with radius r
n
given as
h = r
n
=
2 1
2 1
d d
d d n
+

= n 2 v =
( ) ( )
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 2
d d
d d
d d
d d n
d d
d d
h

+
+
=
+
then Kirchoff diffraction parameter is given as
thus for given r
n
v defines an ellipsoid with constant A = n/2
9
(2) Diffraction Loss caused by blockage of 2
nd
ry (diffracted) waves
partial energy from 2
nd
ry waves is diffracted around an obstacle
obstruction blocks energy from some of the Fresnel zones
only portion of transmitted energy reaches receiver
received energy = vector sum of contributions from all unobstructed
Fresnel zones
depends on geometry of obstruction
phase of secondary (diffracted) E-field
Obstacles may block transmission paths causing diffraction loss
construct family of ellipsoids between TX & RX to represent
Fresnel zones
join all points for which excess path delay is multiple of /2
compare geometry of obstacle with Fresnel zones to determine
diffraction loss (or gain)
10
Fresnel zones: ellipsoids with foci at transmit & receive antenna
if obstruction does not block the volume contained within 1
st
Fresnel
zone then diffraction loss is minimal
rule of thumb for LOS uwave:
if 55% of 1
st
Fresnel zone is clear further Fresnel zone clearing
does not significantly alter diffraction loss
d
2
d
1
o and v are positive, thus h is positive
TX
RX
h

o
excess path length
/2

3/2
) (
2

) ( 2
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
d d
d d
d d
d d
h
+
=
+

v =
e.g.
11
h = 0 o and v =0
TX
RX
d
2
d
1
d
2
d
1
o and v are negative h is negative
h

TX
RX
o
) (
2

) ( 2
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
d d
d d
d d
d d
h
+
=
+

v =
12
3.7.2 Knife Edge Diffraction Model
Diffraction Losses
estimating attenuation caused by diffraction over obstacles is
essential for predicting field strength in a given service area
generally not possible to estimate losses precisely
theoretical approximations typically corrected with empirical
measurements
Computing Diffraction Losses
for simple terrain expressions have been derived
for complex terrain computing diffraction losses is complex
13
Electric field strength, E
d
of knife-edge diffracted wave is given by:
F(v) = Complex Fresnel integral
v = Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter
typically evaluated using tables or graphs for given values of v
E
0
= Free Space Field Strength in the absence of both ground
reflections & knife edge diffraction
(3.59) = F(v) =
( )
dt
t j j
v
}

|
|
.
|

\
| +
2
exp
2
1
2
t
0
E
E
d
14
G
d
(dB) = Diffraction Gain due to knife edge presence relative to E
0
G
d
(dB) = 20 log|F(v)| (3.60)
G
d
(
d
B
)

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Graphical Evaluation
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
v
15
Table for G
d
(dB)
[0,1] 20 log(0.5 e
- 0.95v
)
[-1,0] 20 log(0.5-0.62v)
> 2.4 20 log(0.225/v)
[1, 2.4] 20 log(0.4-(0.1184-(0.38-0.1v)
2
)
1/2
)
s -1 0
v G
d
(dB)
16
3.8 Scattering
RF waves impinge on rough surface reflected energy diffuses in all
directions
e.g. lamp posts, trees ~ random multipath components
provides additional RF energy at receiver
actual received signal in mobile environment often stronger than
predicted by diffraction & reflection models alone
17
Reflective Surfaces
flat surfaces has dimensions >>
rough surface often induces specular reflections
surface roughness often tested using Rayleigh fading criterion
- define critical height for surface protuberances h
c
for given
incident angle u
i

h
c
=
i
u

sin 8
(3.62)
Let h = maximum protuberance minimum protuberance
if h < h
c
surface is considered smooth

if h > h
c
surface is considered rough
h
18
19
For h > h
c
reflected E-fields can be solved for rough surfaces using
modified reflection coefficient
I
rough
=
s
I (3.65)

s
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
2
sin
exp

u to
i h
(3.63)
(i) Ament, assume h is a Gaussian distributed random variable with a
local mean, find
s
as:
(ii) Boithias modified scattering coefficient has better correlation
with empirical data
I
0
is Bessel Function of 1
st
kind and 0 order
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
0
2
sin
8
sin
8 exp
l
I
i h i h
u to

u to

s
= (3.64)
20
Reflection Coefficient of Rough Surfaces
(1) polarization (vertical antenna polarization)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
|I|
angle of incidence
ideal smooth surface
Gaussian Rough Surface
Gaussian Rough Surface (Bessel)
Measured Data forstone wall h = 12.7cm, o
h
= 2.54
21
3.8.1 Radar Cross Section Model (RCS)
if a large distant objects causes scattering & its location is known
accurately predict scattered signal strengths
determine signal strength by analysis using
- geometric diffraction theory
- physical optics
units = m
2

RCS =
power density of radio wave incident upon scattering object
power density of signal scattered in direction of the receiver


where
P
r
is the received signal power
P
t
is the transmit power
G
t
is the transmit antenna gain
r
1
is the transmitter-to-target range
s
b
is the target bistatic RCS
r
2
is the target-to-receiver range
G
r
is the receive antenna gain
l is the radar wavelength

22
2
2
2
1
3
2
) 4 ( r r
G G P
P
B r t t
r
t
o
=
23
d
T
= distance of transmitter from the scattering object
d
R
= distance of receiver from the scattering object
assumes object is in the far field of transmitter & receiver
P
r
(dBm) = P
t
(dBm) + G
t
(dBi) + 20 log() + RCS [dB m
2
]
30 log(4t) -20 log d
T
- 20log d
R
Urban Mobile Radio
Bistatic Radar Equation used to find received power from
scattering in far field region
describes propagation of wave traveling in free space that
impinges on distant scattering object
wave is reradiated in direction of receiver by:
24
RCS can be approximated by surface area of scattering object (m
2
)
measured in dB relative to 1m
2
reference
may be applied to far-field of both transmitter and receiver
useful in predicting received power which scatters off large
objects (buildings)
units = dB m
2
for medium and large buildings, 5-10km
14.1 dB m
2
< RCS < 55.7 dB m
2