Learning theories and psychology in mathematics education

PROF. MADYA DR. NOOR SHAH SAAD JABATAN PENGAJIAN PENDIDIKAN FAKULTI PENDIDIKAN & PEMBANGUNAN MANUSIA

Learning theories and psychology in mathematics education are concerned with the intellectual development of the learners and their applications in the teaching and learning mathematics.

The effective mathematics teachers should not only have an excellent grasp of the subject content but should also have the knowledge on:
how mathematics should be learned, theories of childrens development, understanding how learners learn, theories of mathematical learning and instruction, instructional method and strategy, and problem solving in mathematics.

Our focus: the psychologists theory related to the teaching and learning of mathematics for early childhood ( 0 to 12 years)

JEAN PIAGET (1896 -

Most influential contemprorary theoriest in the area of cognitive development

Intellectual Development Theory

The theory is about knowledge and how the knowledge develops in the human organism.

There are two theories: Theory of learning process Cognitive development theory.

Theory of learning process

Piaget stress that:
The basis of all learning is the childrens self activities when interacting with environment (physically or socially).
Childrens mental activity is arrange in the mental structure (different mental structure can be grouped together as schema or a behavioral pattern).

Mental activities is an adaptation process.

Adaptation is a process through which the

person seeks an equilibrium or balance between what he or she presently perceives, knows, and understands, and what he or she sees in any new phenomenon, experience, or problem.

Adaptation includes two processes (interconnected):

Assimilation
Combines new experience into an existing schema (cognitive structures) Interpret the new experience base on previous experience in the schema (cognitive structures)

Accommodation
Permanent modification of the mental structure to fulfill the need of new experience. Modification can be in qualitative and quantitative in nature. Frequently happened in learning.

Assimilation, accommodation and equilibration

Three important terms in teaching mathematics problem solving
Assimilation Accommodation Equilibration

Two adaptation process (inter-connected):

Assimilation
Combines new experience into an existing schema (preexisting knowledge). Interpret the new experience base on previous experience in the schema.

How are these two adaptation processes occur in teaching? Example: Teaching addition of numbers:
4 +5 9 12 + 35 47 2 5 +3 8 5 13 Why this happened?

This is assimilation. How to overcome the problems?

Could they overcome the problem by explaining? Do you have any better ideas?

Just explaining might be not working.

Most importantly, make them aware of their own mistake. Make them aware of cognitive conflict. How?

Accommodation
Permanent modification of the mental structure to fulfill the need of new experience. Modification can be in qualitative and quantitative in nature. Frequently happened in learning.

See this way:

2 6 +4 7 613

46 +53 99

Let compare each of the values involved

This is accommodation. Post questions and make them thing and aware of their mistake

Equilibration ~ between assimilation & accommodation

Learning is a process of accumulating new knowledge.

So, use math problems to challenge students and give opportunity to learn new things.

Cognitive development theory

The childrens cognitive development is deferent from one to another Changes occur according to the age of the children.

Cognitive development occur in four stages:

Sensory-motor stage (0-2 years old)

Pre-operational stage (2-7 years old)

Preconceptual Intuitive 2 4 years 4 7 years

Concrete operational stage (7-12 years old)

Formal operational stage (12 years and 18 years)

a. Sensory-motor stage:
First stage intellectual development occur from 0 to 2 years old. The baby uses sensory-motor to interact and comprehend the surrounding. They seek stimulation by light and sound The baby learn to connect the object in the environment.
Eg recognize the knock on the door as the moment his father return home.

1.

Sensory-motor stage:
Children use trial and error to gain mastery over the environment Has ability to carry out reflex activity, walk and finally talk at the end of the stage.

Having fully developed the cognitive structures of the period, the child is ready to move on to the next stage.

2.

Pre-Operational Stage (2-7 years)

This stage marks the emergence of symbolic functions and the use of language as a means of representing environmental events and objects. Two substages: preconceptual and Intuitive Pre-conceptual stage is a transition period largely characterized by exploration and investigation. The more activity children experience, the more they question and explore They are interested in the why and how of events.

2. Pre-Operational Stage (2-7 years)

Start to use simple language and symbol to visualize concepts. The average two-year-old understand : between 200 300 words The average five-year-old understand: about 2000 words

By the age of six: average child has a vocabulary of 16,000 words

Intuitive Stage They are not conscious of the categories they are using in cognitive functioning;

Judgment are fragmentary and inconsistent;

Example: Two rows of dimes

The child will say that the longer row has more of dimes in it. WHY

Three Characteristics: Childrens understanding of concepts is based largely on what they see, surface appearances and vivid or dominant characteristics dominate their perception.

The child is fooled by appearances, the longer row looks like more.

Three Characteristics: Comprehension of a situation, event, or object is based on a single perceptual aspect, the most dominant and noticeable from a perceptual standpoint. The child only focus on the length of the row Thought is irreversible the child cannot return to the starting point of a mental sequence. The child cannot mentally picture the starting point of the problem
.

2. Pre-Operational Stage (2-7 years)

Cognitive Development principle of Conservation. Conservation is the idea that the amount of something stays the same regardless of changes in shape or the number of pieces into which it is divided. Piaget studies the conservation of mass, weight, volume, continuous quantity, number.

figure 3.1 (pages 59)

The children are said to be egocentric.

Egocentric student sees the world only from his or her own point of view and is unaware of other perspectives and of his or her own limitations.

Able to think transductively: from one specific example to another specific example only.
Difficulty: neither deductive or inductive. Do not have capability to compare process. Difficult to differentiate the concept of quantity, volume, space and area. Unable to observe reversal process.

3. Concrete operational stage (7-12 ys old)

From 7 until around 12, 13 or 14 years old.

The childrens level of egocentric start to decrease gradually.

Able to identify certain characteristic of an object.

Able to classify object into set and subset according to specific characteristic.
Acquire the concept of transformation and reversal process.

Reversibility of thought is perfected. example: 2+3 = 5 then 5 3 = 2 If water is frozen into ice, then ice can be melted into water.

Able to think inductively and deductively. Not able to think abstractly. Logical thinking limited to concrete matter only. Less capability in solving word problem; might resort to unsystematic methods. Incapable of making generalization: example: 3+4 = 4+3; 7+12 = 12+7;

thus a+b = b+a.

Less capable of learning more then one concept at the same time.

4. Formal operational stage (12 years old and above)

From 12 to around 16, 17 or 18 yrs old. Capable in thinking abstract manner and solve complex problem. They could think inductively and deductively in order to prove math theorem and roles, and making generalisation and conclusion. Able to use math symbol to present abstract idea, relate a certain concept to another concept, apply logic to solve the problem, and could argue an implication like if x, then y.

Able to carry out scientific thinking and math reasoning ex- making hypothesis, test hypothesis and making a conclusion.

Able to identify all relevance factors related to a problem or situation.

End of the stage, able to comprehend and apply complex concept, ex permutation, combination, proportionality, correlation and probability.

Math learning and instruction

Needs to understand the childrens ability and readiness. But aware, some students in the lower secondary school still in the concrete operational stage. Needs to examine and identify the intellectual development characteristics that the students possess before teaching. The teacher should realize that secondary school at concrete operational stage need to learn with concrete materials, especially new topics.

Ex: Teaching geometry: Even though students at the concrete operational stage are able to explain and describe certain concept correctly, they might face difficulties in explaining the same concept using math symbol and statement (because logical thinking limited to concrete matter only). Also, not be able to solve word problems; and might used unsystematic or inaccurate method.

Jerome Bruner
Bruner describe:

Learning theory (or intellectual development theory) as descriptive:

as mental activities performs by the students at certain stage. Explains event that has occurred and expected to occur.

Instructional theory (or intellectual development theory) as prescriptive:

The procedure and objective of instruction.

Bruners Learning Theory

The cognitive development stage. Enactive Stage (from birth to about age 3)
Learning through doing/the childrens own body movements.

Iconic Stage (from about age 3 to about age 8)

Learning through body movement and the use of brains to think and visualize the image in their minds.

Symbolic Stage (from about age 8 upwards)

Able to think by using appropriate language. Acquire new concepts and use them while command of language improve. Able to manipulate symbols.

Knowledge is represented in the form of information Table below display example of material that could be used:

Types of Material and Modes of Representation

Type of material
Manipulative

Enactive (action)

Iconic (image)

Symbolic (symbol)
Number cards, Symbol cards

Actual object, Pictorial chip Model of object -

Printed

Textbooks, Textbooks, Postal, Poster Photographic picture Transparencies, Films, Slides Computer software

Screen

Transparencies, Transparencies, Films Films, Slides Computer software Computer software

Interactive

Ex:
A set of base 10 block consists of a cube measure 1cm by 1cm, a rod measuring 10cm by 1cm, and a block measuring 10cm by 10cm by 1cm.

unit

Rod

Block

Ex: Addition: 4 + 5

=
Answer: 359

Ex: Addition: 124 + 235

=
Answer: 359

Conclusion - Bruner:
First stage (Anactive concrete) learning counting (number or algebra) using block base 10 (DIENES BLOCK). Second stage (iconic - pictorial) using pencil to represent / concretize situation (ex: 234+335).

Third stage (Symbolic/abstract) ex: no 3 does not have any meaning unless associate with object.

VYGOTSKY

Vygotsky
Percaya bahawa perkembangan kognitif berlaku dalam persekitaran sosiobudaya
Kebanyakan daripada kemahiran kognitif kanak-kanak terhasil daripada interaksi sosial kanak-kanak dengan ibu bapa, orang dewasa lain, rakan sebaya dan guru Kemahiran kognitif kanak-kanak diperoleh melalui bimbingan orang yang lebih dewasa yang menjadi model dan menstrukturkan pengalaman pembelajaran kanakkanak

Proses bimbingan ini dikenali sebagai scalffolding. Konsep scaffolding. Scaffolding : sokongan sementara pada binaan. Pelajar beransur-ansur menerima tanggungjawab dari sedikit kepada sepenuhnya ke atas pembelajaran Pembelajaran ini berlaku dalam zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Konsep Zon Perkembangan Proksimal

Menurut beliau, faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh dalam pembentukan bagaimana seseorang individu berfikir adalah berdasarkan sejarah masyarakatnya dan pengalamannya dalam masyarakat itu. Zone of Proximal Development ('ZPD') - Vygotsky referred to the distance between the abilities displayed independently and with social support as the ZPD; his thesis being that this "zone" was created by learning. ie. ZPD as cite directly from Vygotsky "the distance between the actual level of development as determined by independent problem solving [without guided instruction] and the level of potential development as determined by problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers". Measurement would thus be achieved by comparing the student's performance on both tasks.

Penyelesaian masalah dengan bimbingan daripada orang yang berkebolehan Tahap Perkembangan Potensi

ZPD

ZON OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT

Tahap Perkembangan Sebenar

Penyelesaian masalah secara bersendirian

ZPD menjelaskan bahawa kebolehan pelajar akan meningkat apabila berada dalam pengaruh sosial atau rakan-rakan berbanding dengan pembelajaran secara individu.

http://www.healthofchildren.co m/C/CognitiveDevelopment.html
Infancy As soon as they are born, infants begin learning to use their senses to explore the world around them. Most newborns can focus on and follow moving objects, distinguish the pitch and volume of sound, see all colors and distinguish their hue and brightness, and start anticipating events, such as sucking at the sight of a nipple. By three months old, infants can recognize faces; imitate the facial expressions of others, such as smiling and frowning; and respond to familiar sounds. At six months of age, babies are just beginning to understand how the world around them works. They imitate sounds, enjoy hearing their own voice, recognize parents, fear strangers, distinguish between animate and inanimate objects, and base distance on the size of an object. They also realize that if they drop an object, they can pick it up again. At four to seven months, babies can recognize their names. By nine months, infants can imitate gestures and actions, experiment with the physical properties of objects, understand simple words such as "no," and understand that an object still exists even when they cannot see it. They also begin to test parental responses to their behavior, such as throwing food on the floor. They remember the reaction and test the parents again to see if they get the same reaction. At 12 months of age, babies can follow a fast moving object; can speak two to fours words, including "mama" and "papa"; imitate animal sounds; associate names with objects; develop attachments to objects, such as a toy or blanket; and experience separation anxiety when away from their parents. By 18 months of age, babies are able to understand about 10 50 words; identify body parts; feel a sense of ownership by using the word "my" with certain people or objects; and can follow directions that involve two different tasks, such as picking up toys and putting them in a box.

Read more: Cognitive Development - stages, meaning, average, Definition, Description, Common problems http://www.healthofchildren.com/C/Cognitive-Development.html#ixzz18sr6CHOI

Toddlerhood Between 18 months to three years of age, toddlers have reached the "sensorimotor" stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development that involves rudimentary thought. For instance, they understand the permanence of objects and people, visually follow the displacement of objects, and begin to use instruments and tools. Toddlers start to strive for more independence, which can present challenges to parents concerned for their safety . They also understand discipline and what behavior is appropriate and inappropriate, and they understand the concepts of words like "please" and "thank you."

Two-year-olds should be able to understand 100 to 150 words and start adding about ten new words per day. Toddlers also have a better understanding of emotions, such as love, trust, and fear. They begin to understand some of the ordinary aspects of everyday life, such as shopping for food, telling time, and being read to.

Read more: Cognitive Development - stages, meaning, average, Definition, Description, Common problems http://www.healthofchildren.com/C/Cognitive-Development.html#ixzz18srOrXf1

Preschool Preschoolers, ages three to six, should be at the "preoperational" stage of Piaget's cognitive development theory, meaning they are using their imagery and memory skills. They should be conditioned to learning and memorizing, and their view of the world is normally very selfcentered. Preschoolers usually have also developed their social interaction skills, such as playing and cooperating with other children their own age. It is normal for preschoolers to test the limits of their cognitive abilities, and they learn negative concepts and actions, such as talking back to adults, lying , and bullying. Other cognitive development in preschoolers are developing an increased attention span, learning to read, and developing structured routines, such as doing household chores.

Read more: Cognitive Development - stages, meaning, average, Definition, Description, Common problems http://www.healthofchildren.com/C/CognitiveDevelopment.html#ixzz18srazYL7

School age Younger school-age children, six to 12 years old, should be at the "concrete operations" stage of Piaget's cognitive development theory, characterized by the ability to use logical and coherent actions in thinking and solving problems. They understand the concepts of permanence and conservation by learning that volume, weight, and numbers may remain constant despite changes in outward appearance. These children should be able to build on past experiences, using them to explain why some things happen. Their attention span should increase with age, from being able to focus on a task for about 15 minutes at age six to an hour by age nine. Adolescents, ages 12 through 18, should be at the "formal operations" stage of Piaget's cognitive development theory. It is characterized by an increased independence for thinking through problems and situations. Adolescents should be able to understand pure abstractions, such as philosophy and higher math concepts. During this age, children should be able to learn and apply general information needed to adapt to specific situations. They should also be able to learn specific information and skills necessary for an occupation. A major component of the passage through adolescence is a cognitive transition. Compared to children, adolescents think in ways that are more advanced, more efficient, and generally more complex. This ability can be seen in five ways.

Read more: Cognitive Development - stages, meaning, average, Definition, Description, Common problems http://www.healthofchildren.com/C/Cognitive-Development.html#ixzz18sroIfrf

Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development Lev Vygotsky differed from Piaget in that the role of social context and culture in children's cognition was a central part of his theory (Rowe and Wertsch 2002). Rather than seeing the development of knowledge as transcending culture and context, Vygotsky argued that an understanding of how knowledge develops requires an understanding of the social and historical origins of knowledge and of changes in that knowledge. He also proposed a central role for language in cognitive development. Vygotsky argued that human knowledge originates in socially meaningful activity and is shaped by language.

Read more: Development - Cognitive, Self - EMOTIONAL, MORAL - Symbolic Interactionism, Gender, Theory, Family, History, Definition, Children, Child, and Emotions http://family.jrank.org/pages/371/Development.html#ixzz18ssr8Zph

Processes that originate in the social world are transferred to the inner mental world (inner speech), and shape the development of higher cognitive processes such as problem-solving. A key part of this transfer lies in the child's mastery of the symbolic or artificial stimuli (signs) characteristic of the child's culture, such as language. Part of the development of children's thinking therefore requires apprenticeship into culturally specific cognitive and social practices. According to Vygotsky, cognitive development does not happen just in the head of the child. Rather, it is a process of learning to operate with physical, symbolic, and cognitive tools in ways that in themselves change cognitive processes. The difference between a child's individual performance and that child's performance when guided by experts is metaphorically described by Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD was described by Vygotsky (1978) as "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers" (p. 86). This notion of an enhanced level of mental functioning when an expert guides an apprentice has been influential in education and in the study of learning disability. Read more: Development - Cognitive, Self - EMOTIONAL, MORAL - Symbolic Interactionism, Gender, Theory, Family, History, Definition, Children, Child, and Emotions http://family.jrank.org/pages/371/Development.html#ixzz18st46Ftq

Constructivism Perspective
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology during the 20th century. Piaget originally trained in the areas of biology and philosophy and considered himself a "genetic epistemologist." He was mainly interested in the biological influences on "how we come to know." He believed that what distinguishes human beings from other animals is our ability to do "abstract symbolic reasoning." Piaget's views are often compared with those of Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), who looked more to social interaction as the primary source of cognition and behavior. The writings of Piaget (e.g., 1972, 1990; see Piaget, Gruber, & Voneche) and Vygotsky (e.g. Vygotsky, 1986; Vygotsky & Vygotsky, 1980), along with the work of John Dewey (e.g., Dewey, 1997a, 1997b), Jerome Bruner (e.g., 1966, 1974) and Ulrick Neisser (1967) form the basis of the constructivist theory of learning and instruction.

http://www.healthofchildren.com/C/Cognitive-Development.html

Infancy As soon as they are born, infants begin learning to use their senses to explore the world around them. Most newborns can focus on and follow moving objects, distinguish the pitch and volume of sound, see all colors and distinguish their hue and brightness, and start anticipating events, such as sucking at the sight of a nipple. By three months old, infants can recognize faces; imitate the facial expressions of others, such as smiling and frowning; and respond to familiar sounds. At six months of age, babies are just beginning to understand how the world around them works. They imitate sounds, enjoy hearing their own voice, recognize parents, fear strangers, distinguish between animate and inanimate objects, and base distance on the size of an object. They also realize that if they drop an object, they can pick it up again. At four to seven months, babies can recognize their names.

http://www.healthofchildren.com/C/Cognitive-Development.html

By nine months, infants can imitate gestures and actions, experiment with the physical properties of objects, understand simple words such as "no," and understand that an object still exists even when they cannot see it. They also begin to test parental responses to their behavior, such as throwing food on the floor. They remember the reaction and test the parents again to see if they get the same reaction. At 12 months of age, babies can follow a fast moving object; can speak two to fours words, including "mama" and "papa"; imitate animal sounds; associate names with objects; develop attachments to objects, such as a toy or blanket; and experience separation anxiety when away from their parents. By 18 months of age, babies are able to understand about 1050 words; identify body parts; feel a sense of ownership by using the word "my" with certain people or objects; and can follow directions that involve two different tasks, such as picking up toys and putting them in a box.

Read more: Cognitive Development - stages, meaning, average, Definition, Description, Common problems http://www.healthofchildren.com/C/CognitiveDevelopment.html#ixzz18sr6CHOI

Toddlerhood
Between 18 months to three years of age, toddlers have reached the "sensorimotor" stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development that involves rudimentary thought. For instance, they understand the permanence of objects and people, visually follow the displacement of objects, and begin to use instruments and tools. Toddlers start to strive for more independence, which can present challenges to parents concerned for their safety . They also understand discipline and what behavior is appropriate and inappropriate, and they understand the concepts of words like "please" and "thank you." Two-year-olds should be able to understand 100 to 150 words and start adding about ten new words per day. Toddlers also have a better understanding of emotions, such as love, trust, and fear. They begin to understand some of the ordinary aspects of everyday life, such as shopping for food, telling time, and being read to.

Read more: Cognitive Development - stages, meaning, average, Definition, Description, Common problems http://www.healthofchildren.com/C/CognitiveDevelopment.html#ixzz18srOrXf1

Preschool Preschoolers, ages three to six, should be at the "preoperational" stage of Piaget's cognitive development theory, meaning they are using their imagery and memory skills. They should be conditioned to learning and memorizing, and their view of the world is normally very self-centered. Preschoolers usually have also developed their social interaction skills, such as playing and cooperating with other children their own age. It is normal for preschoolers to test the limits of their cognitive abilities, and they learn negative concepts and actions, such as talking back to adults, lying , and bullying. Other cognitive development in preschoolers are developing an increased attention span, learning to read, and developing structured routines, such as doing household chores.

Read more: Cognitive Development - stages, meaning, average, Definition, Description, Common problems http://www.healthofchildren.com/C/CognitiveDevelopment.html#ixzz18srazYL7

School age Younger school-age children, six to 12 years old, should be at the "concrete operations" stage of Piaget's cognitive development theory, characterized by the ability to use logical and coherent actions in thinking and solving problems. They understand the concepts of permanence and conservation by learning that volume, weight, and numbers may remain constant despite changes in outward appearance. These children should be able to build on past experiences, using them to explain why some things happen. Their attention span should increase with age, from being able to focus on a task for about 15 minutes at age six to an hour by age nine. Adolescents, ages 12 through 18, should be at the "formal operations" stage of Piaget's cognitive development theory. It is characterized by an increased independence for thinking through problems and situations. Adolescents should be able to understand pure abstractions, such as philosophy and higher math concepts. During this age, children should be able to learn and apply general information needed to adapt to specific situations. They should also be able to learn specific information and skills necessary for an occupation. A major component of the passage through adolescence is a cognitive transition. Compared to children, adolescents think in ways that are more advanced, more efficient, and generally more complex. This ability can be seen in five ways.

Read more: Cognitive Development - stages, meaning, average, Definition, Description, Common problems http://www.healthofchildren.com/C/Cognitive-Development.html#ixzz18sroIfrf

Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development Lev Vygotsky differed from Piaget in that the role of social context and culture in children's cognition was a central part of his theory (Rowe and Wertsch 2002). Rather than seeing the development of knowledge as transcending culture and context, Vygotsky argued that an understanding of how knowledge develops requires an understanding of the social and historical origins of knowledge and of changes in that knowledge. He also proposed a central role for language in cognitive development. Vygotsky argued that human knowledge originates in socially meaningful activity and is shaped by language.

Read more: Development - Cognitive, Self - EMOTIONAL, MORAL - Symbolic Interactionism, Gender, Theory, Family, History, Definition, Children, Child, and Emotions http://family.jrank.org/pages/371/Development.html#ixzz18ssr8Zph

Processes that originate in the social world are transferred to the inner mental world (inner speech), and shape the development of higher cognitive processes such as problem-solving. A key part of this transfer lies in the child's mastery of the symbolic or artificial stimuli (signs) characteristic of the child's culture, such as language. Part of the development of children's thinking therefore requires apprenticeship into culturally specific cognitive and social practices.
According to Vygotsky, cognitive development does not happen just in the head of the child. Rather, it is a process of learning to operate with physical, symbolic, and cognitive tools in ways that in themselves change cognitive processes. The difference between a child's individual performance and that child's performance when guided by experts is metaphorically described by Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD was described by Vygotsky (1978) as "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers" (p. 86). This notion of an enhanced level of mental functioning when an expert guides an apprentice has been influential in education and in the study of learning disability. Read more: Development - Cognitive, Self - EMOTIONAL, MORAL - Symbolic Interactionism, Gender, Theory, Family, History, Definition, Children, Child, and Emotions http://family.jrank.org/pages/371/Development.html#ixzz18st46Ftq

Thanks