SHEET RESISTANCE AND CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT

VLSI TEST STRUCTURES FOR PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION

BY:SUMEET SAURAV

Outline
Introduction

Sheet Resistance Measurement

Four-Probe Resistivity Measurements with the Model

4200-SCS Van der Pauw Resistivity Measurement Method Hall Effect Measurement Contactless measurement of electrical conductivity of semiconductor wafers using the reflection of millimeter waves Types of Test Structures Process Test Structures 5/25/2013 2

Introduction
Microelectronic test structures are typically included in

Integrated Circuit (IC) designs to enable measurements of process or device parameters for characterization or process control.
The major use of test structures is to extract device and

process parameters at the end of the production line in order to verify that the process has been successful .

If the parametric test results are satisfactory then the

product wafer can be passed on for functional testing.

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 The main problem with the inclusion of test structures is

that they take up valuable space on a wafer which could be occupied by product.
Test patterns can be introduced into a process either as

individual structures placed in the scribe channels between the product die or as dropinswhich are complete test structure chips.
Drop in test chips will replace one or more of the product

die on the wafer and their use must be traded off against the loss of product.

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 Electrical test structures are connected to the test

equipment through metal pads (typically 80-120um square) which can be contacted either with manual probe needles moved by micromanipulators or through the use of a probe card. A2xNprobe card can be used to probe any device on the chip. While the use of the 2 x N type structure is very good from the point of view of flexibility it does suffer from increased testing times due to the extra prober movement required within the chip.

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Uses of test structures

Equipment Characterization

Reliability Evaluations
Defect Monitoring Transistor Parameter Extraction and

Process Verification and Development.

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Outline
Introduction Sheet Resistance Measurement Four-Probe Resistivity Measurements with the Model

4200-SCS Van der Pauw Resistivity Measurement Method Hall Effect Measurement Contactless measurement of electrical conductivity of semiconductor wafers using the reflection of millimeter waves Types of Test Structures Process Test Structures
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Resistivity
Resistivity is probably the most basic parameter for a

conductor or semiconductor material and it is denoted by the symbol with units of . A bar of conducting material with uniform resistivity is shown in the fig below and the resistance between the electrodes is given by

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Derivation
The expression for the Electric Field is

The voltage at point P at a distance r from the probe in

fig a, is then
For the configuration in Fig b the voltage is the voltage at probe 2 is And at probe3 it is

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 For most four-point probes the probe spacing's are

equal. With s=s1=s2=s3,the above equation reduces to

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Contactless method of resistivity measurement

Eddy current Method The eddy current measurement technique is based on the parallel resonant tank circuit of Fig below The quality factor Q of such a circuit is reduced when a conducting material is brought close to the coil due to the power absorbed by the conducting material. The absorbed power Pa is

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 One of the most common techniques used to

measure resistivity is the four-point probe(FPP) method where four point contacts are made to the surface of the material being measured.

Typical values for the tip spacing range from 0.5 to 1.5mm.
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 If the sample being measured can be considered

semi-infinite (i.e. the thickness, width and length of the sample are each much greater than the tap spacing) then the resistivity can be calculated using

However , this technique is commonly used to

measure samples which are not semi-infinite and in that case a correction factor F is added to the equation to correct for the sample geometry .

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Sheet Resistance
When the thickness t of the conducting material is much

less than the tap spacing. In this case, the equation for resistivity can be reduced to

This will apply to a wafer coated with a thin film of

aluminium or a diffused or implanted conducting layer at the surface Because of the difficulty in measuring the thickness of such a conducting layer they are often characterized by their sheet resistance which is expressed in units of ohms per square. probe 16 The sheet resistance is calculated from four-point 5/25/2013

Van der pauw structures

A more practical method of measuring the sheet

resistance of a thin film, given that the sample is too small for the FPP technique, is to use a van der Pauw type test structure.

The method requires that the contacts be small, tending

towards point contacts and the sample material be homogeneous in thickness and resistivity .

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 If the sample is as shown below with the contacts A,B,C

and D then R(AB,CD) is defined as

If R(BC,DA) is defined similarly then

Which can be solved numerically to find

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 If the sample is having 90 rotational symmetry and the

contacts are equally spaced around the boundary then R(AB,CD)=R(BC,DA) and the formula reduces to

This is similar to equation for the resistivity extracted

with a four-point probe technique and can of course be changed to an expression for sheet resistance by dividing both sides by t.

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Alternative form of Van der Vauw formula

Where f is the correction factor which is a function of the

ratio r=R(AB,CD)/R(BC,DA) and can be found by the numerical solution of

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Greek Cross Structures

One of the main sources of error in van der Pauw

measurements is that the contacts are non-ideal and have a finite size. Van der Pauw found that the effect can be reduced by using a clover leaf shaped sample as shown

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 These measurement techniques and structures were

developed for the measurement of the resistivity of large discrete samples of semiconductor materials.
The next development in this field was the evolution of

structures which could be made using standard micro fabrication techniques, and on the same scale as microelectronic devices in order to measure the sheet resistance of thin films or diffused layers.
The Greek cross sheet resistor is a special case of the

four-terminal van der Pauw structure which meets these requirements .

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 Although extraction of sheet resistance from an ideal

structure would only need one resistance measurement in practice four measurements are required:
two at the zero-degreemeasurement position and two at the ninety-degree orientation.

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and

These results are averaged together to get R(

+_I) which is used to calculate the sheet resistance with

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 Where f is a correction factor for asymmetry in the

structure and is calculated using the formula given below

Where r is given by

The asymmetry is quantified with the asymmetry factor

FA which can be calculated from r using the relation

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Equipotential contours in a Greek cross structure. The contour spacing is 50mV , running from 1V at terminal A to 0V at terminal B.

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Equipotential contours in a box cross structure. The contour spacing is 50mV ,running from 1V at terminal A to 0V at terminal B

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 Greek cross structures and variants such as the box

cross are widely used in the characterization of thin film sheet resistances.

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Performing van der Pauw Sheet Resistance Measurements Using the Keithley S530 Parametric Tester

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Outline
Introduction

Sheet Resistance Measurement

Four-Probe Resistivity Measurements with the

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Model 4200-SCS Van der Pauw Resistivity Measurement Method Hall Effect Measurement Contactless measurement of electrical conductivity of semiconductor wafers using the reflection of millimeter waves Types of Test Structures Process Test Structures
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Keithley 4200-SCS Semiconductor Characterization System

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Four-Probe Resistivity Measurements with the Model 4200-SCS

The Four-Point Collinear Probe Method

The two outer probes are used for sourcing current and the two inner probes are used for measuring the resulting voltage drop across the surface of the sample. The volume resistivity is calculated as follows: = volume resistivity (W-cm) V = the measured voltage (volts) I = the source current (amperes) t = the sample thickness (cm) k* = a correction factor based on the ratio of the probe to wafer diameter and on the ratio of wafer thickness to 5/25/2013 32

Using the Model 4200-SCS to Make Four Point Collinear Probe Measurements
The Model 4200-SCS can make four-point collinear

probe measurements using either three or four SMUs (source- measure units).
When using three SMUs, all three SMUs are set to

Current Bias (voltmeter unit). However, one SMU will source current and the other two will be used to measure the voltage difference between the two inner probes.

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SMU Designation for Four-Point Collinear Probe Measurement

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Screen Capture of Model 4200SCS with the Four-Point Probe Project

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Outline
Introduction

Sheet Resistance Measurement

Four-Probe Resistivity Measurements with the Model

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4200-SCS Van der Pauw Resistivity Measurement Method Hall Effect Measurement Contactless measurement of electrical conductivity of semiconductor wafers using the reflection of millimeter waves Types of Test Structures Process Test Structures
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Van der Pauw Resistivity Measurement Method

This method is particularly useful for measuring very

small samples because geometric spacing of the contacts is unimportant. Effects due to a samples size, which is the approximate probe spacing, are irrelevant.
Using this method, the resistivity can be derived from

a total of eight measurements that are made around the periphery of the sample.

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Van der Pauw Resistivity Conventions

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 Once all the voltage measurements are taken, two

values of resistivity, A and B are derived as follows:

Where

A and B are volume resistivities in ohm-cm. ts is the sample thickness in cm. V1-V8 represents the voltage measured by the voltmeter. I is the current through samples in ampers fA and fB are the geometrical factors based on sample symmetry
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 They are related to the two resistance ratios QA and

QB as shown in the following equations (fA= fB= 1 for perfect symmetr y). QAand QB are calculated using the measured voltages as follows:

Also, Q and f are related as follows:

Once Aand B are known, the average resistivity

(AVG) can be determined as follows:

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SMU Configurations for van der Pauw Measurements

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Screen Capture of van der Pauw Resistivity Application on Model 4200-SCS

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Outline
Introduction

Sheet Resistance Measurement

Four-Probe Resistivity Measurements with the Model

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4200-SCS Van der Pauw Resistivity Measurement Method Hall Effect Measurement Contactless measurement of electrical conductivity of semiconductor wafers using the reflection of millimeter waves Types of Test Structures Process Test Structures
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Hall Voltage Measurement

Hall effect measurements are important to

semiconductor material characterization because from the Hall voltage, the conductivity type, carrier density, and mobility can be derived. With a positive magnetic field, B, apply a current between terminals 1 and 3, and measure the voltage drop (V24+) between terminals 2 and 4. Reverse the current and measure the voltage drop (V42+). Next, apply current between terminals 2 and 4, and measure the voltage drop (V13+) between terminals 1 and 3. Reverse the current and measure the voltage (V31+) again.
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 Reverse the magnetic field, B, and repeat the

procedure again, measuring the four voltages: (V24 ), ( V42), ( V13), and (V31). From the eight Hall voltage measurements, the average Hall coefficient can be calculated as follows:

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 Once RHC and RHD have been calculated, the average

Hall coefficient (RHAVG) can be determined as follows:

From the resistivity (AVG) and the Hall coefficient

(RHAVG), the mobility (H) can be calculated:

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Determining Conductivity Type of a Semiconductor Material

There are several methods for determining

conductivity type.
The rectification method is used on high resistivity

material; the thermoelectric method is used on low resistivity materials.

Both methods involve using a four-point collinear

probe, an AC current source, and a DC voltmeter

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The Rectification Method.

This method involves determining the sign of the majority

carrier based on the polarity of a rectified AC signal at the point of contact with the semiconductor material.
When the four-point collinear probe comes in contact with the wafer, a

metal semiconductor diode is created at the interface between each probe and the wafer. An AC current is sourced between the first two probes and a DC voltmeter is used to sense the polarity of the voltage between probes 2 and 3. The metal-semiconductor Schottky diode at probe 2 will be either forward- or reversed biased, depending on the polarity of the current, as well as the conductivity type. As a result, the voltmeter will read a positive voltage for p-type material and a negative voltage for n-type material.

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The Thermoelectric Voltage Method.

For highly doped (low resistivity) materials, the voltage

developed between probes 2 and 3 becomes too small and the rectification mode no longer works well. For this case, the thermoelectric voltage method determines the conductivity type by the polarity of the thermoelectric (or Seebeck) voltage that is generated by a temperature gradient on the material.

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 With this method, an AC current flows between probes 1 and

2 and causes joule heating of the semiconductor. The Seebeck voltage is generated between probes 3 and 4 by the diffusion of thermally generated carriers from the hot region of the material to the cold region. This diffusion creates a non-equilibrium carrier concentration in the cold region, which generates an electric field, opposing further diffusion. This diffusion of carriers from the hot probe (probe 3) to the cold probe (probe 4) continues until the generated electric field is sufficient to overcome the tendency of the carriers to diffuse. For example, in p-type material, the thermally generated holes diffuse to the cold probe, building up a positive space charge, which prevents further diffusion. As a result, the cold probe (4) is more positive than the hot 5/25/2013 50 probe. Thus, for p-type material the voltmeter will read a

Conductivity Type using wafer flat location

The semiconductor conductivity type can be

determined by wafer flat location, thermal emf, rectification, optically, and Hall effect

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Outline
Introduction Sheet Resistance Measurement Four-Probe Resistivity Measurements with the Model

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4200-SCS Van der Pauw Resistivity Measurement Method Hall Effect Measurement Contactless measurement of electrical conductivity of semiconductor wafers using the reflection of millimeter waves Types of Test Structures Process Test Structures
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 A contactless method to measure the conductivity of

semiconductor wafers is the coil method, which measures small impedance changes of an inductive coil placed in close proximity to a sample Although the conductance of the sample affects the magnitude of induced eddy currents and thus the effective impedance of the coil, to determine the conductivity of the sample, the thickness of the sample has to be measured by another technique

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 In this experiment, a high-frequency millimeter wave

was used in order to ensure the transmitted millimeter wave attenuated rapidly inside the wafer, so that the reflection from the bottom surface of the wafer can be neglected. The millimeter wave response signal is not affected by the thickness of the wafer

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 The principle of the technique described here is based on

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the interaction of the millimeter wave with the semiconductor wafer. When a millimeter wave signal irradiates a semiconductor wafer, reflections occur at both the top and bottom surfaces of the wafer due to the discontinuity of medium. The millimeter wave signal reflected from the wafer will be the sum of the two components reflected from the top and bottom surfaces. Since the reflected component from the bottom surface varies with the thickness of the wafer, generally this thickness will affect the measurement results. However, since the attenuation of the millimeter wave increases rapidly inside the wafer with increasing operating frequency, the reflected component from the bottom surface can be decreased to a negligible value by using a high operating 5/25/2013 frequency.

Working
A network analyzer was used to generate a millimeter

wave signal fed to a focusing sensor and to measure both the amplitude and phase of the reflection coefficient.
A millimeter wave of 110 GHz was used.

Under this condition, the reflection from the bottom

surface was calculated to be four orders of magnitude smaller than that from the top surface of the wafer for a silicon wafer having a thickness of 500 mm and conductivity of 200 S/m.
A computer was used to control the stage and to
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Where and Here wafer intrinsic impedance of the semiconductor of free space For nonmagnetic materials, considering and using the above equations, the reflection coefficient can finally be written as

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the reflection coefficient intrinsic impedance of the semiconductor

Outline
Introduction

Sheet Resistance Measurement

Four-Probe Resistivity Measurements with the Model

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4200-SCS Van der Pauw Resistivity Measurement Method Hall Effect Measurement Contactless measurement of electrical conductivity of semiconductor wafers using the reflection of millimeter waves Types of Test Structures Process Test Structures

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A. Test Structures for Device Parameter Extraction

NMOS W/L=4/16
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A. Test Structures for Device Parameter Extraction

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B. Test Structures for Process Parameter Extraction

These structures are used to evaluate the

uniformity of the semiconductor doping process, interface quality, quality of etching. Examples: Cross-bridge sheet resistor Contact resistors for metal-to-silicon or metal-to polysilicon contact resistance measurement. MOS Capacitors for oxide thickness, interface state measurements, flat band voltage, dopant density measurement Diodes for leakage current measurement.
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B. Test Structures for Process Parameter Extraction

Van der Pauw Method

R=(V2 V1)/(I 1 I 2) W=RS L I* /V*

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C. Test Structures for Layout Rule Checking

Used to evaluate those geometrical circuit layout

features that form the layout rules. Examples are: Cross-bridge sheet resistor for line width measurements. Alignment resistor or a comb resistor to evaluate feature to feature spacing.

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C. Test Structures for Layout Rule Checking

As, we increase the contact size , yield increases. Each Sub array is tested for 5/25/2013 open circuit fault condition.

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D. Test Structures for Random Fault Analysis

Used to evaluate the physical fault in the

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semiconductor material system. Knowledge of faults is necessary for logic design, logic simulation and test vector generation. Test structure arrays are constructed out of series, parallel, or addressable arrays of elements. Examples: Serpentine resistor for metal step coverage Comb resistor for quality of etching process. MOS capacitor for oxide integrity(pinhole) 5/25/2013 measurements

Metal Step-Coverage Resistor

Used to evaluate breaks in the metallization at

oxide steps. In order to identify unintended failures(probe pad, failure of the photomasking process) , addressable MOSFET array was developed to pinpoint the location of physical failure.

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E. Test Structures for Circuit Parameter Extraction

These structures are used to extract parameters

that characterize ac, dc and transient process. Examples: Inverters for measuring the threshold , gain and noise immunity Ring Oscillators for measuring the frequency and stage delay

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E. Test Structures for Circuit Parameter Extraction

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Outline
Introduction

Sheet Resistance Measurement

Four-Probe Resistivity Measurements with the Model

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4200-SCS Van der Pauw Resistivity Measurement Method Hall Effect Measurement Contactless measurement of electrical conductivity of semiconductor wafers using the reflection of millimeter waves Types of Test Structures Process Test Structures

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PROCESS TEST STRUCTURES

Purpose

Extract very specific electrical information about the process. Identify process problems. Improve process. Sheet resistance Contact Chain Contact Resistance Continuity and Isolation
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Sheet Resistance
4-Point Probe Structure

Van der Pauw Structure

Force a current and measure the resulting voltage. 4-point probe vs. van der Pauw Compare measured results with simulated and hand-

calculated values.
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Contact Chain
Test contact integrity.

Verify linear relationship between chain length

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and resistance (I-V sweep). Not a good structure to measure contact resistance

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 One contact on source and drain (no Kelvin) One contact on source and two contacts on drain

(Kelvin-Drain) Two contacts on source and one on drain(KelvinSource) And two contacts on source and drain (Full Kelvin)

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Contact Resistance
Measure resistance across contact interface Ohmic

or Schottky behavior?

Force a vertical current through contact and measure

voltage above and below. Examine dependences on material and contact size.
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Continuity and Isolation

Complementary tests to detect unwanted open

and short circuits. Common sources of failure: incomplete etch stringers overetch material failure (breakage) over aggressive topography

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