QUANTITATIVE

RESEARCH
DESIGNS
CONCEPTS IMPORTANT TO DESIGN

A. Causality
- The first assumption one must make in examining causality are
that things have causes and that causes lead to effects.
- Hume (a positivist philosopher) proposed that the following three
conditions must be met to establish causality:
1. there must be a strong correlation between the proposed cause
and the effect
2. the proposed cause must precede the effect in time
3. the cause has to be present whenever the effect occurs
- A philosophical group known as essentialists proposed that two
concepts must be considered in determining causality, necessary
and sufficient.
 - John Stuart Mill, another philosopher, suggested that in addition to
the preceding criteria of causation, there must be no alternative
explanations for why a change in one variable seems to lead to a
change in a second variable (Cook & Campbell, 1979).
- A theoretical understanding of causation is important because it
improves the ability to predict, and in some cases, to control events
in the real world.
- Multicausality is a more recent idea related to causality which is the
recognition that a member of interrelating variables can be
involved in causing a particular effect.
• Cook and Campbell (1979) suggested three levels of causal
assertions that one must consider in establishing causality
a. Molar causal laws – relate to large and complex objects
b. Intermediate mediation – considers causal factors
operating between molar and micro levels
 c. Micromedian – examines causal connections at the level
of small particles such as atoms.
Example (Cook and Campbell, 1979):
Turning a light switch, which causes the light to come
on. (Molar)
An electrician would tend to explain the cause of the
light coming on in terms of wires and electrical current.
(Intermediate Mediation)
The Physicist would explain the cause of the light
coming on in terms of ions, atoms and subparticles.
(Micromediation)
• The essentialists’ idea of necessary and sufficient do not hold
up well when one views a phenomenon from the perspective of
multiple causation.
 Example: The light switch may not be necessary to turn on
the light if the insulation has worn off the
electrical wires. The light will not come on even
though the switch is turned on if the light bulb
was burned out.
• Very few phenomena in Nursing can be clearly reduced to a
single cause and a single effect. The greater the proportion of
causal factors that can be identified and explored, the clearer
the understanding of phenomena.
B. Probability
- Causality/Causation may apply to basic sciences such as chemistry
or physics but is unlikely to apply in the health sciences or social
sciences.
- With the complexity of the nursing field, nurses deal in probabilities.
 - Probability addresses relative, rather than absolute, causality.
From the perspective of probability, a cause will not produce a
specific effect each time that particular cause occurs.
- Reasoning changes when one thinks in terms of probabilities.
Rather than seeking to prove that A causes B, a researcher would
state if A occurs, there is a 50% probability that B will occur.
C. Bias
- The term bias means to slant away from the true or expected.
- It is of great concern in research because of its potential effect on
the meaning of the study findings.
- Many factors related to research can be biased – the researcher,
the measurement tools, the individual subjects, the sample, the
data, and the statistics. Thus, an important concern in designing a
study is to identify possible sources of bias and to eliminate or avoid
them.
 > Manipulation
- In nursing, manipulation tends to have a negative connotation and
is associated with one person underhandedly causing another
person to behave in a desired way.
- The word manipulate means to move around or to control the
movement of, such as manipulating a syringe.
- In research, manipulation is used in experimental or quasi-
experimental research and is sometimes called the treatment.
D. Control
- It means having the power to direct or manipulate factors to achieve
a desired outcome.
- This is very important in research, particularly in experimental and
quasi-experimental studies. The greater amount of control, the
researcher has of the study situation, the more credible the study
findings would be.
STUDY VALIDITY

> A measure of the truth or accuracy of a claim, which is an important

concern throughout the research process.
> Questions of validity refer back to the propositions from which the
study was developed. Is the theoretical proposition an accurate
reflection of reality? Was the study designed well enough to provide
a valid test of the proposition?
> Validity is a complex idea that is important to the researcher and to
those who read the study report and consider using the findings in
their practice.
> Threats to validity should be critically analyzed and judgments
should be made on how seriously these threats affect the integrity of
the findings.
> Types:
1. Statistical Conclusion Validity
2. Internal Validity
3. Construct Validity
4. External Validity
> To make decisions about validity, the researcher must address a
variety of questions, such as the following:
1. Is there a relationship between the two variables?
(Statistical Conclusion Validity)
2. Given that there is a relationship, is it plausibly causal from one
operational variable to the other, or would the same relationship
have been obtained in the absence of any treatment of any kind?
(Internal Validity)
3. Given that the relationship is plausibly causal and is reasonably
known to be from one variable to another, what are the particular
cause – and – effect constructs involved in the relationship?
(Construct Validity)
4. Given that there is probably a causal relationship from construct
A to Construct B, how generalizable is this relationship across
persons, settings, and times? (External Validity) (Cook and
Campbell, 1979, p.39)
Internal Validity
- The extent to which it is possible to make an inference that the
independent variable is truly influencing the dependent variable.
- True experiments possess a high degree of internal validity
because of the use of such procedures as control groups and
randomization enabling the researcher to control extraneous
variables thereby ruling out alternative or competing explanations
(rival hypotheses) of the results.
- Threats to Internal Validity
• History – the occurrence of external events that take place
concurrently with the independent variable that can affect the
dependent variables
Ex. The effectiveness of a County – Wide Nurse Outreach
Program in Relation to Improved Health – Related Practices
Before Delivery (e.g. better nutritional practices, cessation of
smoking, earlier prenatal care)
 • Selection – Encompasses biases resulting from preexisting
differences between groups which happens when individuals
are not assigned randomly to groups thus there is a possibility
that the groups are nonequivalent.
• Maturation – Refers to processes occurring within subjects
during the course of the study as a result of the passage of
time rather than as a result of a treatment or independent
variable (e.g. physical growth, emotional maturity, fatigue and
the like).
Ex. Effects of a special sensorimotor development program for
developmentally delayed children. (to explain further)
• Testing – Refers to the effects of taking a pretest on subjects’
performance on a posttest.
It has been documented in several studies, particularly in those
dealing with opinions and attitudes, that the mere act of
collecting data from people changes them.
 • Instrumentation – This reflects changes in measuring
instruments or methods of measurement between two points of
data collection.
Ex.: a.Using one measure of stress as baseline and a revised
measure at follow-up, any differences might reflect
changes in the measuring tool rather than the effect of
an independent variable.
b. Using same tool but people collecting the data are more
experienced for the second time.
• Mortality – Arises from differential attrition in groups being
compared.
- The loss of subjects during the course of a study may differ
from one group to another because of initial differences in
interest, motivation, health and so on.
- The risk of attrition is especially great when the length of time
between points of data collection is long.
 TABLE 9.2 Research Designs and Threats to Internal Validity
THREAT DESIGNS MOST LIKELY TO BE AFFECTED
History One-group pretest-posttest
Time series
Prospective cohort
Crossover/repeated measures
Selection Nonequivalent control group (especially, posttest-only)
Case-control
“Natural” experiments
Maturation One-group pretest-posttest
Testing All pretest-posttest designs
Instrumentation All pretest-posttest designs
Mortality Prospective cohort
Longitudinal experiments and quasi-experiments
External Validity
- The generalizability of the research findings to other settings or
samples
- The aim of research typically is to reveal enduring relationships,
the understanding of which can be used to improve human health
and well-being.
- A study is externally valid to the extent that the sample is
representative of the broader population, and the study setting and
experimental arrangements are representative of other
environments.
- Threats
1. Expectancy Effects
Subjects may behave in a particular manner largely because
they are aware of their participation in a study (Hawthorne
effect)
 2. Novelty effects
When a treatment is new subjects and research agents alike
might alter their behavior in various ways. Results may reflect
reactions to the novelty rather than to the intrinsic nature of the
intervention; once the treatment is more familiar, results might
be different.
3. Interaction of history and treatment effect
The results may reflect the impact of the treatment and some
other events external to the study.
4. Experimenter Effects
Subjects’ behavior may be affected by characteristics of the
researchers.
5. Measurement Effects
Researchers collect a considerable amount of data in most
studies, such as pretest information, background data, and so
forth. The results may not apply to another group of people who
are not also exposed to the same data collection (and attention-
giving) procedures.
OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH DESIGN TYPES

 Quantitative research designs vary along a number of dimensions as

shown in the following table.
 Quantitative designs tend to be fairly structured. Quantitative
researchers specify the nature of any intervention, comparisons to be
made, methods to be used to control extraneous variables, timing of
data collection, the study site and setting, and information to be given to
participants – all before a single piece of data is gathered.
 Qualitative researchers on the other hand, make deliberate
modifications that are sensitive to what is being learned as data are
gathered.
 Quantitative research often involves making comparisons. It could
either be : between separate groups of people – between – subjects
design, or involving the same people under two conditions or at two
points in time – within – subjects design.
 Table 8.1 Dimensions of Research Design

DIMENSION DESIGN MAJOR FEATURES

Degree of Structure Structured Design is specified before data are collected
Flexible Design evolves during data collection
Type of group comparisons Between-subjects Subjects in groups being compared are
different people
Within-subjects Subjects in groups being compared are the
same people at different times or in different
conditions
Time frame Cross-sectional Data are collected at one point in time
Longitudinal Data are collected at two or more points in
time over an extended period
Control over independent variable Experimental Manipulation of independent variable, control
group, randomization
Quasi- Manipulation of independent variable, but no
experimental randomization or no control group
Manipulation of independent variable, no
Preexperimental randomization or control group, limited
control over extraneous variables
No manipulation of independent variable
Nonexperimental
Measurement of independent and Retrospective Study begins with dependent variable and
Dependent variables looks backward for cause or antecedent
Prospective Study begins with independent variable and
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Experimental
- In an experiment, researchers are active agents, not passive
observers
- Characteristics of True Experiments
a. Manipulation - The experimenter does something (experimental
treatment or interventions) and observes the effect
on the dependent variable.
b. Control - This is achieved in an experimental study by
manipulating, randomizing, carefully preparing the
experimental protocols, and by using a control group.
- Control group - group of subjects whose performance
on a dependent variable is used to evaluate the
performance of the experimental group or treatment
group.
- Experimental group - the group that receives the
intervention on the same dependent variable
c. Randomization - Involves placing subjects in groups at
random (also called random assignment).
- Random means that every subject has an
equal chance of being assigned to any
group to avoid systematic bias.
- Can be done through:
a. Flipping a coin – heads – for 1 group
tails – for 1 group
b. Pulling names from a hat – names of
subjects written in paper then
placed in a hat then drawn
c. Table of Random Numbers – a table
displaying hundreds of digits
arranged in a random order
 - cluster randomization involves randomly
assigning clusters of individuals to
different treatment groups ex. Group of
patients who enter a hospital unit at the
same time
- Refer to Table 8.5 Experimental Designs
- Experimental Conditions
The following are among the questions researchers need to
address:
• What is the intervention, and how does it differ from usual
methods of care?
• If there are two alternative interventions, how exactly do they
differ?
• What are the specific procedures to be used with those
receiving the intervention?
• What is the dosage or intensity of the intervention?
 • Over how long a period will the intervention be administered,
how frequently will it be administered, and when will the
treatment begin (e.g., 2 hours after surgery)?
• Who will administer the intervention? What are their credentials,
and what type of special training will they receive?
• Under what conditions will the intervention be withdrawn or
altered?
- The Control Condition
Referred to as the counterfactual which is used as a basis of
comparison in a study.
The following are among the possibilities for the counterfactual:
a. alternative intervention
b. placebo or pseudointervention presumed to have no
therapeutic value
placebo effect – because of subjects’ expectation
 c. standard methods of care
d. different doses or intensities of treatment
- Experimental Strengths
a. Most powerful method available for testing hypothesis of cause
- and - effect relationships between variables
b. The confidence with which causal relationship can be inferred
Lazarsfeld identified 3 criteria for causality
• a cause must precede an effect in time
• an emperical relationship between the presumed cause and
the presumed effect must be present
• the relationship cannot be explained as being caused by a
third variable
- Experimental Limitations
a. There are often constraints that make an experimental
approach impractical or impossible.
 b. Sometimes criticized for their artificiality
• randomization and equal treatment within groups
• focus on only a handful of variables while holding all else
constant
c. experiments without theoretical framework are questioned for
observed outcomes of causality
d. experiments conducted in clinical settings are often
administered by clinical staff rather than researchers and
therefore treatment to the experimental group is questionable
just as the control group (whether intervention was not done)
e. clinical studies are usually conducted in environments over
which researchers have little control
f. sometimes a problem emerges if subjects themselves have
discretion about participation in the treatment
g. Hawthorne effect
2. Quasi-Experimental Designs
- Quasi-Experiments involve the manipulation of independent
variable but randomization to treatment groups is lacking – shown in
Figure 8.3
Nonequivalent Control Group Designs
• Comparison Group is not a match with the treatment group but is
only similar
Ex. The effect of introducing primary nursing on staff morale
• Two types:
Nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design
Nonequivalent control group posttest only - also called by
Campbell Stanley as preexperimental
Time Series Designs
• types:
One-group pretest-posttest design
 Is there an intervention Figure 8.3
Characteristics of
(control over the independent variable)? different quantitative
research designs.

NO YES

Is there a random assignment to

Nonexperimental
Research treatment groups?

NO YES

Are there efforts to compensate Experimental

Research
For the lack of random assignment?

NO YES

Preexperimental Quasi-experimental
Research Research
 Interrupted Time Series Design – information is collected over
an extended period and an intervention is
introduced during that
period
Time series nonequivalent control group design
- Strength
Practical
-Weakness
There may be several rival hypothesis competing with the
experimental manipulation as explanations for results.
ADDITIONAL TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Survey Research
- is designed to obtain information from population regarding the
prevalence distribution and interrelations of variables within those
populations
• cross-sectional
• longitudinal
- data can be collected through
• personal interviews
• telephone interviews
• questionnaires
Evaluation Research
- An applied form of research that involves finding out how well a
program, practice, procedure or policy is working.
Needs Assessment
- Represents an effort to provide a decision maker with information for
action.
Secondary Analysis
- Involves the use of data gathered in a previous study to test new
hypotheses or explore new relationships.
Meta-Analysis
- An application of statistical procedures to finding from research
reports.
Delphi Surveys
- Developed as a trial for short-term forecasting
Methodological Research
- Refers to controlled investigation of the ways of obtaining, organizing
and analysing data.
Content Analysis Studies
- Involves the quantification of narrative qualitative material