RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

WHAT IS RESEARCH ? Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulated hypothesis. - Clifford Woody.

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WHAT IS RESEARCH ? The manipulation of things, concepts and symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art. - D. Slesinger and M.Stephenson Search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solutions to a problem is research - C.R.Kothari
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RESEARCH MOTIVES

Inquisitiveness (Jidnyasa)

Uncomfortable with uncertainness Sustainable growth of business Academic and career excellence
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Objectives of Research Disciplined inquiry for taking decision in management dilemma related to functional areas like marketing, HR, Finance, System, Operations etc. To understand formulative or descriptive characteristics of the elements involved in decision making, frequency of their

occurrence and associative or causal relationship amongst

them.
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Objectives of Research

To know and understand a phenomenon.

To know characteristics of a situation To know frequency and association between two or more entities or events To know the causal relationship between two or more entities or events

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Utility of research : Inculcation of scientific, logical and inductive thinking. Basis for governmental policies, Solving operational and planning problems of business and industry, Seeking answers to social problems.

Useful for academicians, consultants etc.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH Descriptive V/s Analytical
Descriptive research, also known as statistical research, describes data and characteristics about the population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research answers the questions who, what, where, when and how... Descriptive research cannot be used to create a causal relationship, where one variable affects another. In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied.
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TYPES OF RESEARCH
Descriptive V/s Analytical Analytical research identifies patterns in the description of the population and tries to find out the logical relationship or causal relationship in the patterns. Analytical research answers the Question why. For example, if the descriptive research gives the educational background of students joining PGDM, the analytical research will find the pattern as more students from Engineering and commerce background join the programme. Further it will also try to establish the cause for this phenomenon.
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TYPES OF RESEARCH
Fundamental V/s Applied Fundamental research (also called basic or pure research) has as its primary objective the advancement of knowledge and the theoretical understanding of the relations among variables. It is exploratory and often driven by the researchers curiosity, interest or hunch. It is conducted without a practical end in mind. Maslows theory or McGregors theory is a fundamental research. Through theory generation, basic research provides the foundation for further, often applied research.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH
Fundamental V/s Applied Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions. Its primary aim is not to gain knowledge for its own sake. It can be exploratory but often it is descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of basic research. Theory of elasticity of demand to price is a basic research which can be applied to find out what price should be fixed for a particular product to get desired market share is an applied research.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH
Exploratory V/s Diagnostic Exploratory research is conducted into an issue or problem where there are few or no earlier studies to refer to. The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation. Diagnostic research is aimed at finding out the root cause of a problem such as falling sales, increase in suicides by students etc.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH
Conceptual V/s Empirical Conceptual Research aims at bringing clarity in concepts to form the basis for further research. Concepts like income, intelligence, leadership need research to find out common understanding by respondents.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH
Conceptual V/s Empirical Empiricism refers to a theory of knowledge in philosophy which adheres to the principle that knowledge arises from experience

and evidence gathered specifically using the senses. In scientific

use the term empirical refers to the gathering of data using only evidence that is observable by the senses or in some cases using calibrated scientific instruments.
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RESEARCH APPROACHES Quantitative approach (Collection of quantitative data and analysis) 1. 2. 3. Inferential To form a database for inferences Experimental Manipulation of variable in controlled environment Simulation Operation of numerical model which represents the structure of a dynamic process.

Qualitative approach Subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour.

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Research Process Steps in research :

1. Define research problem What is to be found out ?

2. Review concepts/theory, Review previous research finding: -- What research work has been done so far ? 3. Formulate hypotheses What is the likely out come ? or researchers learned opinion ?

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Research Process Steps in research : 4. Research design What information is needed ? Who will give the information ? from how many to collect the information ? how to collect and analyse the information ? 5. Data collection What is the response to the questions ? 6. Data analysis and interpretation Do the hypotheses test positive or otherwise ? 7. Report how to present the findings, conclusions and suggestions ?
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The Research Process (As described by Cooper & Schindler)

The researcher
encounters a curiosity, doubt, suspicion, or obstacle. struggles to state the problem asks questions, contemplates existing knowledge, gathers facts and moves from an emotional to an intellectual confrontation with the problem. Proposes hypothesis to explain the facts that are believed to be logically related to the problem.
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The Research Process (As described by Cooper & Schindler)

The researcher
Deducts outcome or consequences of the hypothesis attempts to discover what happens if the results are in the opposite direction of that predicted or if the results support the expectations. Formulates several rival hypotheses.

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The Research Process (As described by Cooper & Schindler) The researcher Devises and conducts a crucial empirical test with various possible outcomes, each of which selectively excludes one or more hypotheses. Draws a conclusion (an inductive inference) based on acceptance or rejection of the hypotheses. Feeds information back into the original problem, modifying it according to the strength of the evidence.
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RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY IN RESEARCH Reliability : The accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure. Validity : Extent to which a test measures what we actually want to measure.

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METHODS FOR RELIABILITY ESTIMATES

Test retest : 1. Implement the measuring instrument at two separate times for each subject 2. Compute the correlation between the two separate measurements 3. Assume that there is no change in the underlying conditions between the two separate measurements.

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METHODS FOR RELIABILITY ESTIMATES

Internal consistency :
Two sets of questions aimed at measuring the same concept are administered to the same respondent and correlation is found out.

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METHODS FOR VALIDITY ESTIMATES
1.Content Validity : Extent to which the measuring instrument provides adequate coverage of the investigative questions guiding the study.
2.Criterion validity : Extent to which each criteria can be correctly measured. E.g. income of a family. 3.Construct Validity : Extent to which the scales of measurement represent the actual opinions. ( 1 to 10 scale or very good to very poor scale)

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RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to research purpose with economy in procedure - Claire Selltiz et.al.

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Importance of proper research design :

Without a proper research design the purpose or the objective of

the research will not be served. The reliability of the research

finding depends greatly on the research design.

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STEPS IN RESEARCH DESIGN 1. What is our problem ? 2. What information will help in answering our problem ? 3. What outcome is expected ? 4. Who will give this information? 5. From how many shall the information be collected ? 6. How shall the information be collected? 7. Who will collect the information ? 8. How will the information be analyzed ? 9. How will the conclusions be reported ? 10. What are the constraints of time and money?
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FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN Clear objective Relevant information gathering Well formulated hypotheses Representative sample profile and size Appropriate research instruments Appropriate investigators Appropriate tools for data analysis User oriented reporting Optimum utilization of available resources

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RESEARCH DESIGN & TYPES OF RESEARCH
Type of research Exploratory Or Formulative Descriptive Or diagnostic Characteristics of design Only formulating problem or working hypothesis Flexible More literature survey and experience survey Need valid and reliable data Quantitative/qualitative analysis important

Hypothesis testing Experimental intervention research Cause-effect study

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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
An experiment is a study involving intervention by the researcher beyond that required for measurement. The usual intervention is to manipulate some variable in setting

and observe how it affects the participants or subjects being

studied. (People or physical entities) The researcher manipulates the independent or explanatory variable and then observes whether the hypothesized dependent variable is affected by the intervention.
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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (IV) The variable manipulated by the researcher, thereby causing an effect on the dependent variable. Independent variable is also known as explanatory variable or predictor variable.
DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV) A measured predicted or otherwise monitored variable expected to be affected by manipulation of an independent variable. Dependent variable is also known as criterion variable.
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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
CONTROL GROUP A group that is measured but not exposed to experimental treatment. REPLICATION The process of repeating an experiment with different participant groups, and conditions to determine the average effect of the independent variable across people, situations and times.

FIELD EXPERIMENTATION A study of the dependent variable in actual environmental conditions

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SAMPLE DESIGN A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the technique or procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN Type of Universe Finite and infinite Sampling unit geographic, Social Source list Sampling frame Size of sample Optimal in number, precision and cost. Parameters of interest answering relevant questions Budgetary constraints - Cost considerations Sampling procedure Technique of collecting sample.

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SAMPLING PROCEDURE The sampling procedure shall avoid 1. Systematic bias : Error in sampling procedure due to inappropriate sampling frame, Defective measuring device, non-respondents, abnormal behaviour under observation etc. 2. Sampling error : random variation in the sample estimate around the true population parameters.

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SAMPLING DESIGN Sample Size :

Too small sample size may not be representative and hence

generalization may not be possible. Too large sample size will lead to high cost and wastage of resources. Optimum size can be decided by considering the following factors. Nature of Universe Homogenous or heterogeneous ? (Dispersion) Number of classes Groups and subgroups in the universe.
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SAMPLING DESIGN Sample Size : (Cont.)

Nature of study intense and continuous or general survey ?

Type of sampling random sampling or non-probability sampling ? Accuracy and confidence level High or low ? Availability of finance low or high ? Time frame short or long ? Probability of no response or wasted responses High or low ?
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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

True representation of the population/universe

Small sampling error Viable within the given budget Minimum systemic bias

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RANDOM SAMPLING DESIGN Selection technique Unrestricted sampling Probability sampling Simple random sampling (Random number tables by Fisher, Yates, Tippett) Complex random sampling like Systematic, stratified, Clustered etc.
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Non- Probability sampling Convenience sampling

Restricted sampling

Purposive sampling like quota or judgment sampling

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COMPLEX RANDOM SAMPLING DESIGN
Systematic Random sampling Suppose if 10 % sampling out of 1000 population size is to be taken, then every 10th member is selected as 1st, 11th, 21st, 31st and so on till 91st member.

Stratified Random sampling

Cluster Sampling

If the population is not a homogenous group, then total population is divided into strata with homogenous members and proportionate sample is selected.
When the total area of interest is large, the area is divided into smaller non-overlapping areas and equal samples are selected from each subarea randomly. If the area is divided in ten clusters and the total sample size is 1000, then 100 samples will be selected from each cluster.

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Probability sample: Unrestricted Simple random sampling Every item of the

universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample.

Random number tables by Fisher, Yates, Tippett are used for selection of sample. Restricted complex random sampling Systematic Random sampling Suppose if 10 % sampling out

of 1000 population size is to be taken, then every 10th member is

selected as 1st, 11th, 21st, 31st and so on till 91st member.
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Probability sample: Stratified Random sampling If the population is not a

homogenous group, then total population is divided into strata

with homogenous members and proportionate sample is selected. Cluster Sampling - When the total area of interest is large, the area is divided into smaller non-overlapping areas and equal samples are selected from each subarea randomly. If the area is

divided in ten clusters and the total sample size is 1000, then 100
samples will be selected from each cluster.
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Non-probability sample:

Unrestricted sampling Convenience sampling.

Restricted sampling Purposive sampling like quota or judgment sampling.

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