CHAPTER III.

ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
 SECTION 28.

THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

We consider various elementary
functions studied in calculus and
define corresponding functions of
a complex variable that reduce to
the elementary functions in
calculus when z = x + i0.
We start by defining the complex
exponential function and then use
it to develop the others.
The exponential function ez or
exp z of a complex variable z=x+iy
is defined as
x  iy
e e
z
e e .
x iy

Observe that ez reduces to the

usual exponential function in
calculus when y = 0.
When z = 1/n, then ez = e1/n. In
calculus we take e1/n as the real
positive nth root of e. Therefore
here also we take ez as the real
positive nth root of e if z = 1/n.
The exponential function has the
following properties:
z1  z2
(1) e e  e
z1 z2
.
(2) e  0 for any z.
z

z1  z2
(3) e e e
z1 z2
.
d z
(4) (e )  e .
z

dz
(5) e is periodic with period 2 i.
z

z
(6) e can have negative values.
Problem 6/89. Show that
2
exp( z )  exp( z ).
2

Problem 9/90. Show that

exp(iz )  exp(i z )
if and only if z = nπ ; n integer.
 SECTION 29.

THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

The (multiple-valued)logarithmic
function of a nonzero complex
variable z = reiΘ (- π < Θ ≤ π) is
defined as
log z = ln r + i (Θ+2nπ) (n integer)
0r log z = ln |z| + i arg z.
Observe that
exp(log z) = z (z ≠ 0)
but
log(exp z) is not simply z.
The principal value Log z of log z
is defined as
Log z = ln |z| + i Arg z.
Note : (1) Log z is well defined and
single valued when z ≠ 0 and
log z = Log z + 2nπi ; n integer.
(2) Log z reduces to usual
logarithm in calculus when z is a
positive real number.
(3) log (-1) = (2n+1) πi and
Log (-1) = πi.
Problem 5/94. Show that
(a) The set of values of log(i½) is
(n+¼)πi (n integer) and that the
same is true of (½)log i.
(b) The set of values of log(i2) is
not the same as the set of values
of 2 log i.
 SECTION 30.

BRANCHES AND DERIVATIVES

OF LOGARITHMS
A branch of a multiple-valued
function f is any single valued
function F that is analytic in some
domain D and F(z) is one of the
values f(z) at each point of D.
For each fixed α, the single-valued
function
log z  ln r  i (r  0,       2 )
is a branch of the multiple-valued
function
log z  ln r  i (  2n ) (n  Z).
The function
Log z  ln r  i (r  0,      )
is called the principal branch.
A line or curve that is introduced
in order to define a branch F of a
multiple-valued function f is
called a branch cut for F.

Any point that is common to all

branch cuts of f is called a branch
point.
Problem 8/94. Suppose that the
point z=x+iy lies in the horizontal
strip α<y< α+2π. Show that when
the branch
log z  ln r  i (r  0,       2 )
of the logarithmic function is
used, log(ez)=z.
 SECTION 31.

SOME IDENTITIES INVOLVING

LOGARITHMS
(1) log( z1 z2 )  log z1  log z2 ( z1 , z2  0)
(2) z  e
n n log z
( z  0, n  Z)
(3) z 1n
 exp( log z ) ( z  0, n  1, 2,3,K )
1
n

Equation (1) is interpreted by

saying that if two of the three
logarithms are specified, then
there is a value of the third such
that the equation holds.
Note: Statement (1) is not, in
general, valid when log is
replaced everywhere by Log.

Problem 1/96. Show that if real

parts of z1 and z2 are positive, then
Log ( z1 z2 )  Log z1  Log z2 .
 SECTION 32.

COMPLEX EXPONENTS
When z≠0 and c is any complex
number, the function zc is defined
by the equation
z e
c c log z
,
where log z denotes the multiple
valued logarithmic function.

Note: Powers of z are, in general

multiple valued.
If the branch
log z  ln r  i (r  0,       2 )
of logarithmic function is used,
then zc is single valued and
analytic in this domain. Within
this domain
d c c 1
z  cz .
dz
The principal value of zc is
P.V. z  e
c c log z
.
The principal branch of zc is
defined on the domain
z  0,   Arg z   .
The exponential function with
base c, where c is any nonzero
complex constant, is defined as
c e
z z log c
.
When a value of log c is specified,
cz is an entire function of z and
d z
c  c log c.
z

dz
Problem 3/100. Show that

(1  3 i ) 32
  2 2.
 SECTION 33.

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
The sine and cosine functions of a
complex variable z are defined as
 iz  iz
e e
iz
e e
iz
sin z  , cos z  .
2i 2
It is easy to check that
d d
(1) sin z  cos z , cos z   sin z.
dz dz
(2) sin( z )   sin z , cos( z )  cos z.
The following identities are easy
to establish:
(1) sin( z1  z2 )  sin z1 cos z2  cos z1 sin z2
(2) cos( z1  z2 )  cos z1 cos z2  sin z1 sin z2
(3)sin(iy )  i sinh y, cos(iy )  cosh y
(4)sin z  sin x cosh y  i cos x sinh y
(5) cos z  cos x cosh y  i sin x sinh y
Both sine and cosine functions
are periodic with period 2π and
both are unbounded.
Zeros of sin z are z = nπ and zeros
of cos z are z = (π/2) + nπ, where n
is an integer.
Other trigonometric functions are
defined as in real case.
Problem 16(a)/105. Show that
cos(iz )  cos(i z )
for all complex numbers z.

Problem 17/105. Find all roots of

the equation sin z = cosh 4 by
equating the real parts and the
imaginary parts of sin z and
cosh 4.
 SECTION 34.

HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Hyperbolic sine and cosine
functions of a complex variable
are defined as
z z
e e
z
e e z
sinh z  , cosh z  .
2 2
It is easy to check that
d d
(1) sinh z  cosh z, cosh z  sinh z.
dz dz
(2)sinh( z )   sinh z , cosh( z )  cosh z.
The following identities are easy
to establish:
(1) sinh( z1  z2 )  sinh z1 cosh z2  cosh z1 sinh z2
(2) cosh( z1  z2 )  cosh z1 cosh z2  sinh z1 sinh z2
(3)  sinh(iz )  sin z, cosh(iz )  cos z
(4)  i sin(iz )  sinh z, cos(iz )  cosh z
 (5)sinh z  sinh x cos y  i cosh x sin y
(6) cosh z  cosh x cos y  i sinh x sin y
2
(7) sinh z  sinh x  sin y
2 2

2
(8) cosh z  sinh x  cos y
2 2

Other hyperbolic functions are

defined as in real case.
 SECTION 35.

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC AND

HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
The inverse sine, cosine and
tangent functions of a complex
variable are defined as:
1
sin z  i log[iz  (1  z ) ],
2 12

1
cos z  i log[ z  i (1  z ) ],
2 12

1 i iz
tan z  log .
2 iz
The derivatives of these functions
are as follows:
d 1 1
sin z  ,
dz (1  z )
2 12

d 1 1
cos z  ,
dz (1  z )
2 12

d 1 1
tan z  .
dz 1 z 2

First two derivatives depend on

the values chosen for the square
roots.
The inverse hyperbolic sine,
cosine and tangent functions of a
complex variable are defined as:
1
sinh z  log[ z  ( z  1) ],
2 12

1
cosh z  log[ z  ( z  1) ],
2 12

1 1 1 z
tanh z  log .
2 1 z