Introduction to Respiratory System

- composed of structures involved in ventilation and gas exchange

Functions
- moving air; ___________ to and from the exchange surfaces of the lungs along the respiratory passageways - providing an large ____________ ________ for gas exchange between air and circulating blood - ___________ respiratory surfaces from dehydration, temperature changes, or other environmental variations, and ____________ the respiratory system and other tissues from invasion by pathogens - producing ___________ involved with communication ex. - facilitating the detection of _____________ __________ receptors in the superior portions of the nasal cavity

Organization
Anatomical - upper tract - lower tract Upper - consists of the _________, ________ __________, paranasal sinuses and __________ - __________, _________, and __________ incoming air, providing protection for the lower respiratory delicate surfaces - cool and dehumidify outgoing air Lower - consists of the __________, __________, ________, _____________, and _________ or the lungs * Lower begins with larynx

Respiratory Tract
- passageways that carry air to and from the exchange surfaces of the lungs - __________ portion: begins at the entrance to the nasal cavity and extends through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles - ____________ portion: include the smallest, delicate __________, and __________ - gas exchange occurs quickly and efficiently due to: - ___________ between blood in an alveolar capillary and air inside and alveolus - ____________ _________ (35x the body) - filtering, warming, and humidification of air begins at the entrance and continues to alveoli - possible due to _______ lining the conduction portion

Upper Respiratory System

Nose - two ____________ in which air enters - right and left portion divided by _______ ________ - air passes through nasal vestibule; space contained within the flexible tissues - hairs extend across opening trapping large particles - nostrils open into the _________ _________ - air flows between _________ _________; bones and processes aiding in the contact of mucous, warming and humidifying - cilia, mucous secretion and tear drainage keeps area moist and clean - olfactory region providing sense of smell

Upper Respiratory Cont.

Pharynx (throat) - shared chamber by ________ and ____________ system - passageway for both air and food - digestive (food) enters into esophagus - air enters into trachea - divided into __ parts - ______________ - ______________ - ______________ - contains the tonsils - helps produce sounds of speech

Lower Respiratory System Cont.

Larynx voice box - enlargement in airway superior to trachea inferior to pharynx - __________ air in and out of trachea through ________ - prevents foreign objects from entering trachea - incomplete cartilaginous walls - ___________ cartilage: largest adams apple - ___________ cartilage - ___________: forms lid over glottis - houses vocal cords - 2 folds of tissue, upper false, lower true - upper: help close airways during swallowing - lower: vibrate when air rushes past them forming sound

Lower Respiratory System Cont.

Trachea ____________ - anterior to espophagus, extending downward into thoracic cavity spliting into right and left bronchi - made of ~20 C-shaped ________ of _____________ that provides both protection and flexibility - not continuous, allows for distortion by food - contains cilia and mucus cells catching any remaining dust sweeping it into the throat to be swallowed

Lower Respiratory System Cont.

Bronchial Tree - consists of branched airways leading from the trachea to air sac of lungs - begins from trachea - right and left ___________ ___________ (bronchi) - ______ is larger in diameter and descends at a steeper angle - secondary bronchi - _________ bronchi - terminal bronchiole - alveolar ducts leads to alveolar ________ leads to ___________ ~ 300 million alveoli ~ total surface area about

Lower Respiratory System Cont.

Alveoli ____________ - site of _______ __________ by capillaries between the air and blood -~150 million in each lung; ~ 300 million alveoli total - surface area about half the size of a tennis court - gives lungs it __________ appearance - loaded with _____________

Respiration
External - includes all processes involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the bodys interstitial fluids and the external environment - purpose: meeting the respiratory demands of cells - 3 steps - pulmonary ventilation (breathing) movement of air into and out of the lungs - gas diffusion across the respiratory membrane between capillary walls between blood and other tissues - transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide between alveolar capillaries and capillary beds in other tissues Internal - absorption of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide by those cells

Mechanics of Breathing
Pulmonary ventilation consists of two phases - ____________: gases flow into lungs - ____________: gases exit the lungs

Pulmonary Ventilation
Breathing (ventilation) - flow of air in and out of the lung requires a __________ difference between air pressure within the lungs and outside the body - pressure changes in the lungs rely on: - respiratory muscles- external intercostals - closed, thoracic compartment - elasticity of the lungs - ___________ ______ is one cycle of inspiration and expiration - quiet respiration at ______ - forced respiration during __________

 ______________ ___________ (Patm) - pressure exerted by the ________ surrounding the body - _____________ at sea level

Pressure Relationships in Thoracic Cavity

- Respiratory pressures are described relative to Patm - __________ respiratory pressure is less than Patm - __________ respiratory pressure is greater than Patm - __________ respiratory pressure = Patm

 Intrapulmonary (intra-alveolar) pressure (Ppul) - pressure in the ___________ - fluctuates with ___________ - always eventually equalizes with Patm

Pressure Relationships in Thoracic Cavity

Intrapleural pressure (Pip) - pressure in the ___________ ___________ - fluctuates with _______________ - always a ____________ pressure (< Patm and Ppul )

Pressure Relationships
If Pip = Ppul the lungs ___________

(Ppul - Pip) = transpulmonary pressure - keeps the _________ ________ - the greater the transpulmonary pressure, the larger the lungs

Homeostatic Imbalance
Atelectasis (lung collapse) - due to: - plugged bronchioles collapse of alveoli - wound that admits air into pleural cavity (pneumothorax)

 Volume - volume changes pressure changes Pressure - pressure changes gases flow to equalize pressure

Factors that affect Pulmonary Ventilation

Boyles Law -relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas - Pressure (P) varies ____________ with Volume (V)

Inspiration
- an ____________ process - inspiratory muscles contract - _____________ ____________ contract raising ______ upward and outward - __________ descends, __________ thoracic volume - lungs are stretched and intrapulmonary volumes increases - intrapulmonary ___________ drops (to -1mm Hg) - air flows into the lungs, until ____________

Expiration
- Quiet expiratory expiration is normally a ________ process -inspiratory muscles relax - external intercostals relax - _________ relaxes (moves upward), ___________ the volume of the thorax - intrapulmonary volume ____________ - Ppul rises (to +1mm Hg) - air flows out of the lungs until ___________ *forced expiration is an active process using abdominal and internal intercostal muscles

Respiratory Air Volumes

4 volumes used to represent air moving in or out of lungs - used to assess a persons respiratory status - ___________: instrument used to measure ventilation - _______ __________ (__) or Resting Tidal Volume - ____________ Reserve Volume (___) - ____________ Reserve Volume (___) - ___________ volume (__)

Respiratory Air Volumes Cont.

Tidal volume: - amount of air you move into or out of your lungs during a single __________ _______ - _________ Resting tidal volume: - amount of air you move into or out of you lungs during a single respiratory cycle under resting conditions - ~500 mL Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): - amount of air that you can ___________ expel after you have completed a normal respiratory cycle - ____________

Respiratory Air Volumes Cont.

Residual volume: - amount of air that remains in your lungs even after a maximal exhalation - ___________ Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): - amount of air that you can take in over and above the tidal volume - ___________

Respiratory Capacities
Inspiratory Capacities (IC) Functional residual capacity (FRC) Vital Capacity (VC) Total Lung Capacity (TLC)

Respiratory Capacities Cont.

Vital Capacity - total amount of air that can exhaled with effort after maximum inspiration - assesses strength of thoracic muscles and pulmonary function _____________ Capacity - maximum amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal tidal expiration ______________ residual capacity - amount of air in lungs after a normal tidal expiration Total Lung Capacity - ___________ amount of air lungs can hold

Nonrespiratory Movements
- air movements that occur in addition to breathing - used to _______ __________, or express _________ ex.

 _________ - decreased lung compliance, respiratory muscles weaken ____________ - maintain strength of respiratory muscles Body Size - proportional, big body = large lungs Restrictive Disorders - decreased compliance and vital capacities ____________ Disorders - interfere with airflow, expiration requires more effort or less complete

Factors affecting Respiratory Volumes & Capacities

Control of Breathing
- normal breathing is a rhythmic, __________ act that continues even when a person is unconscious - respiratory muscles are under ___________ control Brain Stem - contains groups of _________ that are scattered throughout the ____________ __________ and _______ - make up the respiratory areas which control ___________ and ____________ -

Medullary Respiratory Control Center

- includes two bilateral groups of neurons that extend throughout the length of the medulla oblongata - __________ respiratory group - __________ respiratory group

Dorsal/Ventral Respiratory Groups

dorsal - most important in stimulating the muscles of _________, primarily the diaphragm - the more impulses they send, the more forceful the contractions, the ____________ the inspiration - stop sending impulses, ____________ occurs (passively) Ventral - comprised of neurons that control other respiratory muscles, primarily the intercostals and abdominals - during forceful breathing, some neurons will increase inspiratory efforts, while others increase the force of expiration

Pons
- composed of neurons of the Pontine Respiratory Group - make connections with the medullary rhythmicity center - contribute to the ________ _____________ of breathing - function by monitoring ______ levels in arterial blood - if high increases rate and depth of breathing

Factors Affecting Breathing

Chemicals - ____________ ______________ - located in the ventral portion of the medulla oblongata near the origins of the vagus nerves - sense changes in the cerebrospinal fluid levels of _______ and ________ - if levels of either rise signals respiratory areas ___________ respiratory rate and tidal volume - located in carotid arteries and aortic arch

Factors Affecting Breathing

- ____________ chemoreceptors - specialized structures called _____________ _________ sense changes in blood _________ levels - located in certain large _________ (aorta) - transmit impulses to the respiratory areas increase the __________ of breathing * occurs only when blood oxygen levels are significantly low Stretch of lung tissue - stimulates ___________ ____________ (depth) - shorten the duration of inspiratory movements preventing overinflation

Factors Affecting Breathing

___________ __________ ___________ state - fear and pain typically increase breathing rate

- must consider: - the physical properties of gases - composition of alveolar gas

Gas Exchange between: Blood, Lungs and Tissues

 ___________ pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the ______ of the pressures exerted by _____ ______

Basic Properties of Gases: Daltons Law of Partial Pressures

__________ ___________ of each gas is ___________ _____________ to its _____________ in the mixture

Partial Pressures of Air

Air is a mixture of ________; each contributes it partial pressure - at sea level 1 atm. of pressure = 760 mmHg - millimeters of mercury ex. nitrogen constitutes 78.6% of the atmosphere so - PN2 = 78.6% x 760 mmHg = 597 mmHg - PO2 = = 159 - PH2O = = 3.7 - PCO2 = = 0.3 - PN2 + PO2 + PH2O + PCO2 = 760 mmHg

- when mixing of gases is in contact with a _______, each gas will __________ in the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure - at _____________, the partial pressures in the two phases will be equal - the amount of gas that will dissolve in a liquid also depends upon its _______________ - ____ is 20x more soluble in water than ______ - very little N2 dissolves in water

Basic Properties of Gases: Henrys Law

Composition of Alveolar Gas

- contains more CO2 and water vapor than atmospheric air due to: - ____ _____________ in the lungs - _______________ of air - _________ of alveolar gas that occurs with each breath - PN2 = = 569 mmHg - PO2 = = 104 - PH2O = = 47 - PCO2 = = 40

 Partial pressure gradient for O2 in the ______ is _______ - venous blood PO2 = - alveolar PO2 = - thus O2 _________ from alveolar air into blood - blood leaves the lungs with a PO2 of 104 mm Hg - O2 partial pressures reach equilibrium of 104 mm Hg is ~0.25 sec, about 1/3 the time a red blood cell is in a pulmonary capillary

Partial Pressure Gradients & Gas Gradients

External Respiration
Exchange of O2 and CO2 across the respiratory membrane is influenced by: - partial pressure gradients and ___ __________ - ____________ Perfusion Coupling - ____________ characteristics of the respiratory membrane - __________ - __________ ______ - _____________

 Partial pressure gradient for CO2 in the lungs is less steep - venous blood return PCO2 = - Alveolar PCO2 = *BUT remember CO2 is 20X more soluble in plasma than oxygen SO CO2 diffuses in equal amounts with oxygen

Partial Pressure Gradients & Gas Solubilities

Ventilation- Perfusion Coupling

Ventilation: amount of _______ reaching the alveoli Perfusion: _______ ________ reaching the alveoli - must be _________ (coupled) for efficient gas exchange - changes in PO2 in the alveoli cause changes in the diameters of the arterioles - where alveolar O2 is ______, arterioles __________ - where alveolar O2 is low, arterioles constrict - changes in _____ in the alveoli cause changes in the diameters of the ____________ - where alveolar CO2 is high, bronchioles dilate - where alveolar CO2 is low, bronchioles constrict

 Thickness - normally ~ 0.5 1 um - thicken if lungs become ____________, gas exchanges becomes inadequate Surface Area - large total surface area - 40x that of ones skin - lessen with _________, gas exchange becomes inadequate

Structural Characteristics of Respiratory Membrane

Internal Respiration
Exchange of capillary gas in body tissues Partial pressures and diffusion gradients are reversed compared to external respiration - PO2 in tissue is ________ than in the systemic arterial blood - PO2 of venous blood is 40 mm Hg - thus oxygen fuses into the tissues ex. blood = ~95 mm Hg; tissues 40 mm Hg

- PCO2 in tissue is higher than in the systemic arterial blood - thus carbon dioxide fuses into the blood, RBCs - PCO2 of venous blood 45 mm Hg ex. tissue = ~45 mm Hg; blood 40 mm Hg

Oxygen Gas Transport

O2 transport - 1.5% dissolved in __________ - 98.5% loosely bound to each ______ of hemoglobin (Hb) in RBCs - __ O2 per Hb (saturated) called an ____________

Release of O2 from Hemoglobin

Factors affecting the release of O2 from hemoglobin - the ______ between O2 and hemoglobin are _______ - as the PO2 _______, oxyhemoglobin molecules release O2 - ________ into nearby cells that have depleted their _______ supplies ex. - concentration of _________ - increases release of O2 increases - ________ - increases release of O2 increases - _________ ___________ - increases release of O2 increases

Carbon Dioxide Transport

CO2 transport - 7-10% dissolved gas - 20% _____________ (HbCO2) - binds to amino group of Hb - 70% as __________ ________ (most important) - CO2 + H2O H2CO3- + H+

Problems with External Respiration

Hypoxia - low tissue oxygen levels - places severe limits on the metabolic activities of the affected area Anoxia - supply of oxygen is completely cut off - kills quickly

Gas Exchange
- majority of oxygen (98%) is carried by ____________ in our rbcs - each hemoglobin can carry __ molecules of O2 referred to as ______________ - majority of CO2 (75%) is carried as __________ ion (CO2 + water) in our rbcs - other is carried as carboxyhemoglobin when hemoglobin molecules have released their oxygen - takes place at the ____________ by ____________ - does not involve any energy and is passive

Gas Exchange Cont.

1. rbc pass through ____________ at alveolar sac 2. O2 from alveolar sac diffuses into _________ (rbc is o2 poor and alveolar sac is O2 rich) 3. At same time, bicarbonate ion in rbc change back to ________ 4. CO2 diffuses out of rbc into ______________ (rbc is CO2 rich and alveolar sac is CO2 poor 5. __________ leaves the alveolar sac 6. Rbc joins ____________ _______ travels to left side of heart