TOPIC TWO: THE PROBLEM

THE HEART OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

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The problem

Introduction The HEART of every research project is the problem. It is paramount to the success of the research effort. To see the problem with unwavering clarity and to state it in precise and unmistakable terms is the first requirement in the research process.
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FINDING RESEARCH PROJECTS

Problems for research are every where. Use the library-inspect any volume of dissertation under the computing field. Find a research problem that will engage your efforts and enthusiasm. Any research project takes time and energy thus it should be worth that time and energy. Research projects should involve both collection of data and interpretation of those data. Some problems are not suitable for research because they lack in the interpretation of the data requirement- i.e. they do not elicit a mental struggle on the part of the researcher to force the data to reveal their meaning.
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FINDING RESEARCH PROJECTS contd.

1.

Guidelines to selecting a legitimate research problem Research project should not be ruse for achieving self-enlightenment- all of us have holes in
our education, and reducing them should not be the purpose of research. Gathering info to know more about a certain area of knowledge is entirely different from looking at a body of data to discover how it contributes solution to the problem.

Research Must Lead To New Knowledge

2 A problem whose sole purpose is to compare to sets of data is not a suitable research problem- e.g. a research to compare the number of women employed since 1970 to that of men. This research project involves nothing more than a quick trip to the library to reveal what is already known.
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Guidelines to selecting a legitimate research problem

3.

Calculating a co-efficient of correlation between two sets of data to show a relationship between the data is not acceptable as a problem- because the basic requirement of research is ignored i.e. a human mind struggling with data. This is a proposal to perform a statistical operation that a computer can do infinitely faster and more accurately than a person. Problem that result in a yes or a no answer is not suitable problem fro research- also because the researcher will not struggle with this kind of data. In other words the researcher is looking for the froth on top of the cup and mistaking for the substantive drink below.
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4.

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Guidelines to selecting a legitimate research problem

5. The problem selected needs to sustain your interest fro a long period of time. If something can go wrong, it will go wrong. NB that projects take longer than planned. 6. Avoid topics that are overly ambitious and challenging e.g. temper enthusiasm with [pragmatism. 7. Avoid topics closely linked to your emotions or have a personal ax to grind because they may worsen the issue and get in the way of completion or worse still bias the findings. 8. Choose a problem that is worth pursuing and that you can demonstrate mastery of the subject and method. And of course one that you have the potential to make a contribution.
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Guidelines to selecting a legitimate research problem

9. Remember that tradeoffs are normally made between rigour and practicability in the view of the fact that time and resources are limited. 10. Feasibility considerations Time Cost Other resources Ethical constraints and implications Needed co-operation for successful completion e.g. provision of required information.
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IDENTIFYING AND DESCRIBING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

A. THE ORIGIN OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

1.

Read The Literature- enables one to out what things are already known. About your topic of interest. It is also likely to tell you what is not known in the area- i.e. what needs to be done. E.g. by reading the literature, your research might address.

(i) address the suggestions fro future/further research that another researcher has offered. (ii) replicate a research project in different setting or with a different population.
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ORIGIN OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

(iii) apply an existing perspective or explanation to new a situation. (iv) consider how various subpopulations might behave defiantly in the same situation. (v) challenge research findings that fly in the face of what you know or believe to be true. Other advantages of Lit Review gives you a theoretical base on which to build a rationale for your study. It provides research methodologies and methods of measurement. It can help in interpretation of findings and relate them to what is already known in the field.
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ORIGIN OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

2. Attend Professional Conferences- research projects can be found at national and regional conferences in their discipline. Attending sessions of interest one is able to learn what's hot and what's not. Novice researchers can make contacts with experts in their field-ask questions, share ideas and ex-change e-mail addresses with more experiences and knowledgeable individuals. 3. Seek The Advice Of Experts- simple but highly effective strategy for identifying a research problem- simply ask the expert- What needs to done?, what burning questions are still out there?, what previous research findings seemingly dont make sense?. Your professor will almost certainly answer the each of these questions
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ORIGIN OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

4.

Practical problems in the field e.g. failure of implementing ERP systems in organizations Request For Proposals -(RFPs) e.g. by agencies and /firms as consultancy. Think them up-ideas influenced by background, culture, education, experience, etc

5.

6.

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Guidelines To Stating The Research Problem

1.
2.

Two important sayings: The heart of any research project is the problem A problem well stated is a problem half solved At every stage of the process, successful researchers ask themselves what am I doing?, for what purpose am I doing it?- these questions help one to focus their effort towards achieving the ultimate purpose fro gathering data i.e. to resolve the problem. Researcher get off to a strong start when they begin with an unmistakably clear statement of the problem.
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Guidelines To Stating The Research Problem contd.

After identifying a research problem therefore, you must articulate it in a such a way that it is CAREFULLY PHRASED AND REPRESENTS THE SINGLE GOAL OF THE TOTAL RESEARCH EFFORT. The following are the guidelines 1 State The Problem Clearly And Completely- it should be clearly stated that anyone who reads English can u/stand it. Otherwise the searcher is merely deceiving themselves that they know what the problem is this will cause trouble later on. A problem is stated clearly only when it is stated completely. At a minimum the problem should be described in one or more grammatically complete sentence.
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Guidelines To Stating The Research Problem contd.

2. Think Through The Feasibility Of The Project That The Problem Implies Dont rush into a problem without thinking through its implications. Its great to have ideas, but its better to have practical ideas. Before enthusiasm overtakes you, take some time and consider practicability the problem that you intend to propose for research-is it doable? 3. Say Precisely What You Mean- i.e. exactly what you mean. Dont assume that others will be able to read your mind-they will take your words at their face valuei.e. you mean what you say.
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Guidelines To Stating The Research Problem contd

Basic rule for stating the problem: Absolute honesty and integrity are assumed in every statement a scholar makes. Another difficulty in stating the problem is when the researcher talks about he problem but never actually states what the problem is. Under the excuse that the problem need an introduction or needs to be seen against a background, the research launches into a generalized discussion, continually obscuring the problem never clearly articulating it.

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Guidelines To Stating The Research Problem contd

4. Edit Your Work- avoid the difficulty of stating your problem by carefully editing your work. Editing is sharpening a thought to a gemlike point and eliminating useless verbiage. Choosing the words precisely will clarify your writing. It improves ones thinking and the prose. NB words that approximate a thought are not adequate to convey the thought- approximation is never precision.

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Guidelines To Stating The Research Problem contd

(a)
(b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Suggestions to keep in mind while editing Use a thesaurus-helps to find the exact word. Never use a long word where a short word will do. Avoid professional jargon except when you need it. Keep your sentences short, vary the length, break those that are long. Be alert to how and where you use adjectives, adverbs and other modifiers. Look critically at each thought. Do the words say exactly what you wish them to say. Read carefully phrase by phrase.
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DIVIDING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM INTO SUB PROBLEM

1.

Most research problems are too large and complex to be solved without breaking them down. Strategy-divide and conquer-its easier to address and resolve smaller unit of the main problem. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUB PROBLEMS. Each subproblem should be completely researchable- it should constitute a logical subarea of the larger research undertaking. It should be researched as a separate subproject within the larger research goal. The solutions to the subproblems, taken together, combine to resolve the main problem.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUB PROBLEMS contd

subproblem should also be stated clearly and succinctly. Often they are stated in form of questions. A question tends to focus the researchers attention more directly on the research target of the subproblem than does a declarative statement-an interrogative attitude makes a true researcher.

2. Must be clearly tied to the interpretation of the data-at some point in the statement of the subproblem-the fact that data will be interpreted must be clearly evident. This fact may be expressed as part of the subproblem statement, or it may occupy an entirely separate subproblem.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUB PROBLEMS contd

3. The Subproblem Must Add Up To The Totality Of The Problem- after stating the subproblems check against the statement of the main problems to see that: (a) Nothing in excess of the coverage of the main problem is included. (b) All significant areas of the main problem, are covered by the subproblems. 4. Subproblems Should Be Small In Number- if the main problem is carefully stated and properly limited to a feasible researchable effort, the researcher should be able to come up with two, three, or four subproblems.

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IDENTIFYING SUBPROBLEMS

Begin with the problem itself. If the problems correctly written, it will be easy to identify the subproblem areas that may be isolated for further study. THE PAPER-PENCIL APPROACH Write the problem on a piece of paper and then box off the subproblem areas. Steps involved; (a) Copy the problem onto a clean sheet of paper, leaving considerable space between the lines (b) Read the problem critically to discover the areas that should receive in-depth treatment before the problem can be resolved
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IDENTIFYING SUBPROBLEMS contd.

(c)

Make sure every problem contains a word that indicates the necessity to interpret the data within the particular subproblem e.g. analyze, discover, compare, examine, etc and underline those words.

(d)

Arrange the entire problem (which will now have the subproblems boxed off) into a skeletal plan that shows the research structure of the problem. You will now have the structure of the whole research
design.

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Further delineation of the problem

NB the statement of the problem establishes the goal fro the research effort and the subproblems suggest ways of approaching that goal in a more manageable way. But the goal alone is not enough. To comprehend fully the meaning of the problem, need additional info to enable a clear u/standing of every detail of the process. thus the researcher should strive to eliminate any possibility of misunderstanding. The following elements comprise the setting of the problem, and contribute towards the clarity of the problem.
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Further delineation of the problem

1.

Stating the hypotheses and /or research questions Definition : a hypothesis is a tentative intelligent guess posited to direct one thinking towards the solution of the problem.

Research Questions provide another for guiding an directing researcher thinking and are more concerned with qualitative studies. They both provide the guidance for the kind of data a researcher should collect and suggests how the researcher should analyze and interpret those data.
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The hypothesis (es)

Both may originate in the subproblems. Often a one to one correspondence exists between the subproblems and their corresponding hypothesis or questions. In this case we have as many hypothesis or questions as we have subproblems. Hypothesis are neither proved or disapproved. They can only supported or not supported by the data.

To set out to prove a hypothesis would defeat the impartiality of research. The researcher would be biased or would bias the procedure by looking only for those data that would support the hypothesis
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1. The hypothesis (es)

Since they have nothing to do with proof we must let the chips fall where they may. Their acceptance or rejection is dependent on what the data (and the data alone) ultimately reveal. If you discovers that the data does not support the hypothesis, dont let the outcome disturb you , it merely means that your educated guess about the income of the investigation was incorrect. E.g. students who receive counseling will show a greater increase in creativity than student not receiving counseling. Automobile A is performing as well as automobile B. NB these hypotheses are capable of being objectively verified and tested. Thus a hypothesis stated what we are looking for and it is a proposition which can be put to test to determine its validity
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Characteristics of hypothesis (es)

1.

2.

3. 4.

Hypothesis should be clear and precise. Otherwise the inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. Its testable if other deductions can be made from it, which in turn, can be confirmed or disapproved by observation. It should state the relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relational hypothesis. Should be limited in scope and must remember that narrower hypothesis are generally more testable and should develop such hypothesis
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Characteristics of hypothesis (es)

5.

6.

7. 8.

They should be stated as far as possible in the most simple terms so that the same is easily understandable by all concerned. But simplicity does not imply significance Hypotheses must be consistent with most known facts i.e. it must be consistent with substantial body of established facts. It should be one that judges accepts as being the most likely Hypotheses should be amenable for testing within reasonable time Hypothesis must explain the facts that give rise to the need for explanation i.e. by using the hypotheses and other known and accepted generalizations, one should be able to deduce the original problem condition-it should have empirical reference- explain what it claims to explain
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The Null And Alternative Hypothesis

When we hypothesize that there is no difference between groups, no relationships between variables, or more generally, no patterns in the data, we are forming a null hypothesis E.g. comparing method A with Method B and proceed to state that both of them are equally good, then this assumption is termed as the null hypothesis Null hypothesis are used primarily during statistical analysis. The null hypothesis is the opposite of the hypothesis-probably not true-and we often set out to disapprove a null hypothesis.

E.g. a team of social workers believe that one type of afterschool program is good for teenagers (Prog A) is more effective than another program (Prog B) in terms of reducing high school dropout rates.
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The Null And Alternative Hypothesis

The teams research hypothesis is Teenagers enrolled in Prog A will graduate from high school at a higher rate than teenagers enrolled in Prog B.

Because the social workers cannot actually prove their hypothesis, they instead try to disapprove an opposite hypothesis i.e. There will be no difference in the high school graduation rates of teenagers enrolled in Prog A and those enrolled in Prog B. Thus if the researcher finds out that there is a substantial difference in graduation rates between the two Programs- and in particular, if the graduation rate is higher for the youth in Prog A-they can reject the no difference hypothesis and thus by default supported their research hypothesis
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The Null And Alternative Hypothesis

Alternative hypothesis: we may think that method A is superior or method B is inferior, thus we are then stating what is termed as alternative hypothesis. If the sample results do not support the null hypothesis , we should consider that something else is true. What we conclude in rejecting the null hypothesis is known as the alternative hypothesis, i.e. the set of alternatives to the null hypothesis is referred to as alternative hypothesis. If we accept the null hypothesis then we are rejecting the alternative hypothesis and the vice versa. The null and the alternative hypothesis are chosen b4the sample is drawn. The researcher must avoid the error of deriving hypothesis from the data that he/she collects and then testing the hypothesis from the same data.
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The Null And Alternative Hypothesis

(i)

Conclusion Alternative hypothesis is usually the one which one wishes to prove and the null hypotheses is the one which one wishes to disapprove. Thus, a null hypothesis represents the hypothesis we are trying to reject, and alternative hypothesis represents al other possibilities rejecting a certain hypothesis when it is actually true involves a great risk, it is taken as null hypothesis because then the probability of rejecting it when it is true is alpha (the level of significance) which is chosen to be very small. Null hypothesis should always be specific hypothesis i.e. it should not state about or approximate a certain value
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(ii)

(iii)

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2. Delimiting the research

NB as much as there is need to know what the researcher intends to do there is also need to know precisely what the researcher does not intend to do. What he/she intend to do is stated in the problem while what he/she does not intend to do is stated in the delimitations Limit of the problem should be carefully bounded. The research should avoid being beguiled by discovery of interesting info that lies beyond the precints of the problem is under investigation. The researcher should keeps the research problem as the focal centre of the process so that he/she can distinguish what is relevant to the problem. Thus all irrelevancies should be ruled out of the statement of the problem
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3.Defining the terms

This is giving the meaning all the terms, included in the statement of the problem and subproblems, that have any possibility of being misunderstood. Each term must be defined operatively: i.e. the definition must interpret the term as it is employed in relation to the researchers project. Thus the researcher makes the term mean whatever he/she wishes it to mean within the context of the problem and its subproblem We must know how the researcher defines the term and we nee not necessarily subscribe to such a definition, but so long as we know what the researcher means when employing a [particular term, we are able to u/stand the research and appraise is appropriately.
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3.Defining the terms contd.

Formal definition -3 parts a. The term to be defined. b. The genera- or the general class to which the concept being defined belong c. The differentia- the specific x-tics or traits that distinguish the concept being defined from all other members of the general class. Avoid circular definitions-one which the terms being defined is used in the definitions themselves e.g. a rose is a rose
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4. Stating the assumptions

Assumptions are what the researcher take for granted. However taking thing for granted can cause misunderstanding. In research nothing should be left to chance in the hope of preventing any misunderstanding. All assumptions that have material bearing on the problem should be openly and servedly set forth.

If others know the assumptions a researcher makes, they are better prepared to evaluate the conclusions that result from such assumptions.
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The purpose/importance of the study

Ask yourself of what importance is the study?, what value does the study have?. In defining the specific problem , the researcher conveys the focus of the research study in one or two sentences.

Careful thought must be given to formulation of the purpose since it the the centroid of the study. It should also be accurately expressed so as to carry out the research process with ease. It should not be stated in a general manner. E.g. Nutrition in children. Such a topic needs to be narrowed down to specific purpose statements in order to facilitate the research process.

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The purpose/importance of the study contd.

a. b. c.

Criteria
it must be indicated clearly, unambiguously and in a declarative manner The purpose should indicate the concepts or variables in the study. Where possible the relationships between the variables should be stated. The purpose should state the target population. The variables and the target population should be consistent with the variables and target population operationalized in the methods sections of the study

d.
e.

1.

An example of a purpose:
the purpose of this study is to investigate the resource skill of women in small-scale businesses. management
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The purpose/importance of the study contd.

2.

The purpose of this study is determine the effects of alcohol on reaction time of heavy truck drivers in Kenya. the purpose of this study is to find out the relationship between cattle grazing practices and land degradation in marginal areas of Kenya. In stating the purpose of the study, a researcher must choose the right words in order to convey the focus of the study effectively.

3.

The purpose should not merely be implied by the tone of the introduction, neither should the reader be left guessing which of the sentences in the introduction express the purpose.
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The purpose/importance of the study contd.

The researcher should avoid using value-laden biased or subjective words or sentences in expressing the purpose. E.g. to show to prove to confirm to verify to check to demonstrate to indicate to validate to explain to illustrate.
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The purpose/importance of the study contd.

The following verbs are neutral and are commonly used in stating the purpose; to determine to compare to investigate to differentiate to explore to find out to examine to inquire to establish to test.

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