Paradigms of Research

Paradigms
Frames of reference we use to organize our

observations and reasoning.

Often implicit, assumed, taken for granted. Become entrenched, resisting change Shift requires revolutionary change in view New paradigms proposes unique ways of seeing and explaining things that then take hold

Macrotheory and Microtheory

Macrotheory deals with large, aggregate entities

of society or even whole societies.

Struggle between economic classes, international

relations, interrelations among major institutions

Microtheory deals with issues of social life at the

level of individuals and small groups.

Social interactions, collective deliberation, social

perceptions, sense-making

Positivism
View that science would replace religion (belief)

and metaphysics (logic) by basing knowledge on observation through senses

All social research descends from Comtes view

that society could be studied scientifically.

Coined the term sociologie - study of society

Coined the term positivism, in contrast to what he

regarded as negative elements of his age.

Social Darwinism
Influence of Darwins Origin of Species Process of evolution through natural selection
Scholars began to apply Darwins ideas to changes

in the structure of human society.

Shift to progressively fitter forms of society. Survival of the fittest - Herbert Spencer Arguably a misapplication of biological theory

Conflict Theory
Karl Marx asserted social behavior could be seen

as the process of conflict

To dominate and avoid being dominated.

Focus on struggle among classes Social Relations of Production Capitalism and Alienation Class Struggle and Hegemony

Symbolic Interactionism
Interactions revolve around the process of

individuals reaching understanding through language and other systems - Mead & Cooley
Meaning - Definition Language - Symbol System Thought - Negotiation

Can lend insights into the nature of interactions in

ordinary social life, and help understand unusual forms of interaction.

Structural Functionalism
A social entity, such as an organization or a whole

society, can be viewed as an organism.

A social system is made up of parts, each of which

contributes to the functioning of the whole, each serves a purpose.

This view looks for the functions served by the

various components of society.

Feminism
Focuses on gender differences and how they

relate to social organization

Attend to womens oppression in societies, as well

as other kinds of oppression

Critique of patriarchal structure Critique of dominant social order and norms

Social Cognition
Study of mental processes underlying social

perception, judgment, and influence

Human perception and judgment prone to

systematic biases and distortions

Conceive of the social world based on what is at

the top of our heads

Schemata - categories of knowledge These categories structure understanding

Group Exercise
Get in groups of three and discuss what paradigm you

would use to study the relationships between news media and advertisers
Be sure to explain what insights this paradigm would provide Five minutes and then collective discussion

Traditional Model of Science

Four elements: theory, conceptualization

operationalization, and observation.

Develop a Theory. Conceptualize it components

Develop operational definitions that specify the process

involved in measuring a variable. Observe and measure of what is seen.

Generating Theories
Theory:
A generalizable explanation An organized framework of knowledge

Identifying:
Antecedent factors and processes Consequent factors and processes Contingent conditions

Hypotheses
Testable statements derived from theories
Observations used to test hypotheses Hypotheses supported or not supported
Not proven or disproven

When hypotheses are not supported:

Theory is considered falsified (not useful)

Purpose of Systematiziation
Designed to yield objective knowledge
Different researchers using the same procedures would

produce:
A. Similar results B. Similar conclusions

Known as inter-subjectivity

Importance of Control
Control in scientific observation:
Isolating cause and effect
Controlling for extraneous factors

Removing the biases of the observer Clear conceptual and operational definitions

Knowledge Accumulation
Identifying, defining, refining concepts:
Operating on two levels:
1. Concrete empirical observations 2. Abstract, generalizable terms:
E.g., social conflict, social capital, or social status E.g., attitudes, motivations, or perceptions

Integration of the concrete and abstract

Nature of Scientific Evidence

1. Gathered under controlled conditions
Specified conditions of observation, procedures Permits replication by other scientists

2. Evidence considered tentative

Results could have occurred by chance Statistics used to estimate probability that results occurred by

chance
Margin of error and confidence intervals

3. Evidence describes patterns that are generalizable

Evidence yields inferences to other situations

Frankfurt School Critique of Social Science

1. Inappropriateness of mechanistic approaches
Hard science approach adapted to human behavior Humans not as predictable as molecules

2. Some important concepts hard to measure:

E.g., intelligence, social class, class struggle

3. Focuses only on what currently exists

Ignores possibilities of what could be

4. Instrumental nature of knowledge collected

Knowledge may reinforce rather than critique existing relations of

power in society