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INTRODUCTION
Aerodynamics is derived from two words
So Aerodynamics means
STUDY OF OBJECTS IN MOTION THROUGH THE AIR & THE FORCES THAT PRODUCES OR CHANGE SUCH MOTION
ATMOSPHERE
Air is a mixture of gases
Pressure of Atmosphere
The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7 p.s.i or 29.92 inches of mercury.
Density
Density is defined as weight per unit volume
Density is pressure
directly
proportional
to
Humidity
the
Water vapor weighs approximately 5/8th as much as an equal amount of perfectly dry air
Temperature
The atmospheric temperature falls off at a steady rate as altitude increases
This is called lapse rate. Its value is 6.50C for every 1000m of altitude increase.
This is up to 11 kms.
Bernoullis Principle
Bernoullis Principle states that
pv = constant
( p = Pressure, v = Velocity)
Gravity or weight
The force that pulls aircraft towards earth Thrust The force that moves the aircraft forward
Lift
Drag
AEROFOILS
An aerofoil is a surface designed to obtain a desirable reaction from the air through which it moves/gains lift.
Aerofoils Terminology
Chord
The chord line is an imaginary straight line drawn through an aerofoil from leading and trailing edge.
Leading edge
This part of the aerofoil meets the airflow first.
Trailing edge
This is the portion of aerofoil where the airflow over the upper surface rejoins the lower surface.
Camber
The camber of an aerofoil is the characteristic curve of its upper and lower surface.
Relative wind
This is the direction of airflow with respect to wing
Angle of attack
The angle between the chord line and the direction of relative wind
Angle of incidence
The angle between chord line and longitudinal axis of a/c.
Center of Pressure
The point where the total lift force is acting is called center of pressure.
So, L = 1CLV2S, (CL = Lift co-efficient) 2 CL depends upon shape of aerofoil and angle of attack D = 1CDV2S (CD = Drag co-efficient) 2 CD depends upon shape of aerofoil and angle of attack
Angle of lift/drag
attack
and
Shape of lift/drag
aerofoil
and
The shape of aerofoil determines the amount of skin friction or turbulence produced
Fineness ration =
High fineness ratio, thin wing and hence large amount of skin friction
For general use, maximum thickness occurs 1/3rd way back from leading edge.
Aspect Ratio =
Lift/Drag ratio
Stalling of Aerofoil
The angle of attack at which the lift co-efficient of an aerofoil is maximum and beyond which it begins to decrease is called stalling angle
Parasite Drag
The drag of those parts of aircraft which do not contribute towards the lift.
Form Drag
Form drag is created by any structure which protrudes into the relative wind. Streamlining reduces drag.
Interference drag
It occurs when varied currents of air over an airplane meet and interact
Induced drag
The action of aerofoil that gives us lift also cause induced drag
Total Drag
Total Drag is defined as the sum Parasite drag and induced drag
Axis of aircraft
Aircraft maneuvering flight takes place around one or more of three axes of rotation
Stability
Stability of an a/c causes it to fly in a straight & level flight plan
Maneuverability
It is the ability of an a/c to be directed along a desired flight path
Controllability
It is the quality of the response of an aircraft to the pilot commands
Static Stability
It is the initial tendency that an object displays after its equilibrium is disrupted
Dynamic stability
Dynamic stability describes the time required for an airplane to respond to its static stability following a displacement from a condition of equilibrium.
Longitudinal Stability
The horizontal stabilizer is the primary surface which controls longitudinal stability
The action of stabilizer depends upon the speed and angle of attack of the aircraft
Directional stability
The stability about the vertical axis is referred to as directional stability So, directional stability refers to the motion in yaw. The vertical stabilizer is the primary surface which controls directional stability
Ventral fin
Lateral stability
Lateral stability of an aircraft involves consideration of rolling moments due to side slip A side slip tends to produce both a rolling and yawing motion Wings are the primary control surface to enhance lateral stability
Dihedral angle
Control
Control is the action to make the aircraft follow any desired fly path.
Different control surfaces are used to control the aircraft about each of the three axis.
Primary group
Primary group includes elevators and rudders the ailerons
Secondary group
Included in secondary group are the tabs.
Auxiliary group
Included in auxiliary group are wing flaps, spoilers, speed brakes, slats, leading edge flaps and slots.
Control axis
about
longitudinal
The motion of the aircraft about the longitudinal axis is called rolling or banking.
It is done with the help of ailerons
Ailerons are linked together so that one aileron is down the opposite aileron is up
Adverse yaw
As a result of increased lift in the wing with lowered aileron the drag is also increased.
This drag pulls the nose in the direction opposite to that desired.
It can be avoided
use of differential aileron travel
use of spoilers
The motion of the aircraft about the vertical axis is called yawing.
The motion of the aircraft about the vertical axis is called pitching.
Tabs
These are small hinge control surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the primary control surfaces
Types of tabs
Trim tab
These are used to trim out any holding forces encountered in flight such as those occurring after a change of flight path due to gust wind or any undesirable flight altitude
Trim tabs are either control from the cockpit or adjusted on the ground
Servo tab
Servo tab, sometimes refer to as flight tabs, are used primarily on the large main control surfaces.
They aid in moving the control surface and holding it in the desired position. Only the servo tab moves in response to the movement of the cockpit control.
Balance Tabs
A balance tab moves in the opposite direction to that of main control surface. Thus assisting the movement of main control surface by reducing the aerodynamic force
Spring tabs
Spring tabs are used for the same purpose as hydraulic actuator i.e. to aid in moving a primary control surface
Flaps
The use of flaps increases the camber of a wing and therefore the lift of the wing making it possible for the speed of the aircraft to be decreased without stalling.
Types of flaps
Plain
To the plain flap is simply hinged to the wing and forms a part of the wing surface
Split flap
The split flap is hinged at the bottom part of the wing near the trailing edge
Fowler
The fowler flap increases camber as well as wing area. They provide added lift without increasing drag.
Slotted flap
The slotted flap is like the fowler flap in operation, but in appearance is like a flap having a slot in its leading edge.
Boundary devices
Layer
control
Boundary layer control devices additional means of increasing the maximum lift coefficient of a section
layer
Mach Number
It is the ratio between true air speed to the speed of sound
M=
TAS
Speed of sound
Transonic
Flight mach number from .75 to 1.20
Supersonic
Flight mach number from 1.200 to 5.00
Hypersonic
Flight mach number above 5.00