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Foreign Direct
Investment Theory
and Strategy
The Theory
of Comparative Advantage
• The theory of comparative advantage provides
a basis for explaining and justifying
international trade in a model world assumed to
enjoy free trade, perfect competition, no
uncertainty, costless information, and no
government interference.
15-2
The Theory
of Comparative Advantage
• The theory contains the following features:
– Exporters in Country A sell goods or services to
unrelated importers in Country B
– Firms in Country A specialize in making products
that can be produced relatively efficiently, given
Country A’s endowment of factors of production,
that is, land, labor, capital, and technology
– Firms in Country B do likewise, given the factors of
production found in Country B
– In this way the total combined output of A and B is
maximized
15-3
The Theory
of Comparative Advantage
– Because the factors of production cannot be moved
freely from Country A to Country B, the benefits of
specialization are realized through international
trade
– The way the benefits of the extra production are
shared depends on the terms of trade, the ratio at
which quantities of the physical goods are traded
– Each country’s share is determined by supply and
demand in perfectly competitive markets in the two
countries
– Neither Country A nor Country B is worse off than
before trade, and typically both are better off, albeit
perhaps unequally
15-4
The Theory
of Comparative Advantage
• Although international trade might have
approached the comparative advantage model
during the nineteenth century, it certainly does
not today, for the following reasons:
– Countries do not appear to specialize only in those
products that could be most efficiently produced by
that country’s particular factors of production (as a
result of government interference and ulterior
motivations)
– At least two factors of production – capital and
technology – now flow directly and easily between
countries
15-5
The Theory
of Comparative Advantage
– Modern factors of production are more numerous than in
this simple model
– Although the terms of trade are ultimately determined by
supply and demand, the process by which the terms are
set is different from that visualized in traditional trade
theory
– Comparative advantage shifts over time, as less
developed countries become developed and realize their
latent opportunities
– The classical model of comparative advantage did not
really address certain other issues, such as the effect of
uncertainty and information costs, the role of
differentiated products in imperfectly competitive
markets, and economies of scale
15-6
The Theory
of Comparative Advantage
• Comparative advantage is however still a relevant theory
to explain why particular countries are most suitable for
exports of goods and services that support the global
supply chain of both MNEs and domestic firms.
• The comparative advantage of the 21st century, however, is
one based more on services, and thier crossborder
facilitation by telecommunications and the Internet.
• The source of a nations comparative advantage is still
created from the mixture of its own labor skills, access to
capital, and technology.
15-7
The Theory
of Comparative Advantage
• Many locations for supply chain outsourcing
exist today (see the following exhibit).
• It takes a relative advantage in costs, not just an
absolute advantage, to create comparative
advantage.
• Clearly, the extent of global outsourcing is
reaching out to every corner of the globe.
15-8
Exhibit 15.5 Global Outsourcing of Comparative Advantage
CHINA
BUDAPEST
LONDON BERLIN
EAST. EUROPE
PARIS
SHANGHAI
PHILIPPINES RUSSIA
UNITED
MANILA STATES
MOSCOW
MEXICO
MONTERREY
SAN JOSE JOHANNESBURG
GUADALAJARA BOMBAY INDIA
COSTA RICA S. AFRICA HYDERABAD
BANGALORE
MNEs based in many of the major industrial countries are outsourcing many of their
Data: Gartner, McKinsey, BW
intellectual functions to providers based in many of the traditional emerging market countries.
15-9
Market Imperfections: A Rationale for
the Existence of the Multinational Firm
• MNEs strive to take advantage of
imperfections in national markets for products,
factors of production, and financial assets.
• Imperfections in the market for products
translate into market opportunities for MNEs.
• Large international firms are better able to
exploit such competitive factors as economies
of scale, managerial and technological
expertise, product differentiation, and financial
strength than are their local competitors.
15-10
Market Imperfections: A Rationale for
the Existence of the Multinational Firm
• Strategic motives drive the decision to invest
abroad and become a MNE and can be
summarized under the following categories:
– Market seekers
– Raw material seekers
– Production efficiency seekers
– Knowledge seekers
– Political safety seekers
• These categories are not mutually exclusive.
15-11
Sustaining and Transferring
Competitive Advantage
• In deciding whether to invest abroad, management
must first determine whether the firm has a sustainable
competitive advantage that enables it to compete
effectively in the home market.
• The competitive advantage must be firmspecific,
transferable, and powerful enough to compensate the
firm for the potential disadvantages of operating
abroad (foreign exchange risks, political risks, and
increased agency costs).
• There are several competitive advantages enjoyed by
MNEs.
15-12
Sustaining and Transferring
Competitive Advantage
• Economies of scale and scope:
– Can be developed in production, marketing, finance, research
and development, transportation, and purchasing
– Large size is a major contributing factor (due to international
and/or domestic operations)
• Managerial and marketing expertise:
– Includes skill in managing large industrial organizations
(human capital and technology)
– Also encompasses knowledge of modern analytical techniques
and their application in functional areas of business
15-13
Sustaining and Transferring
Competitive Advantage
• Advanced technology:
– Includes both scientific and engineering skills
• Financial strength:
– Demonstrated financial strength by achieving and
maintaining a global cost and availability of capital
– This is a critical competitive cost variable that
enables them to fund FDI and other foreign
activities
15-14
Sustaining and Transferring
Competitive Advantage
• Differentiated products:
– Firms create their own firmspecific advantages by
producing and marketing differentiated products
– Such products originate from researchbased
innovations or heavy marketing expenditures to
gain brand identification
• Competitiveness of the home market:
– A strongly competitive home market can sharpen a
firm’s competitive advantage relative to firms
located in less competitive ones
– This phenomenon is known as the diamond of
national advantage and has four components
15-15
Exhibit 15.7 Determinants of National Competitive
Advantage: Porter’s Diamond
(1)
Factor conditions
(4) (2)
Firm strategy, Demand
structure, & rivalry conditions
(3)
Related and
supporting Industries
Source: Michael Porter, “The Competitive Advantage of Nations,” Harvard Business Review, March-April 1990. 15-16
The OLI Paradigm and Internalization
• The OLI Paradigm is an attempt to create an overall
framework to explain why MNEs choose FDI rather
than serve foreign markets through alternative models
such as licensing, joint ventures, strategic alliances,
management contracts, and exporting.
– “O” ownerspecific (competitive advantage in the home
market that can be transferred abroad)
– “L” locationspecific (specific characteristics of the
foreign market allow the firm to exploit its competitive
advantage)
– “I” internalization (maintenance of its competitive
position by attempting to control the entire value chain
in its industry)
15-17
Where to Invest?
• The decision about where to invest abroad is influenced by behavioral
factors.
• The decision about where to invest abroad for the first time is not the
same as the decision about where to reinvest abroad.
• In theory, a firm should identify its competitive advantages, and then
search worldwide for market imperfections and comparative
advantage until it finds a country where it expects to enjoy a
competitive advantage large enough to generate a riskadjusted return
above the firm’s hurdle rate.
• In practice, firms have been observed to follow a sequential search
pattern as described in the behavioral theory of the firm.
15-18
Where to Invest?
• The decision to invest abroad is often a stage in the
firm’s development process.
• Eventually the firm experiences a stimulus from the
external environment, which leads it to consider
production abroad.
• Some important external stimuli are:
– An outside proposal, from a quality source
– Fear of losing a market
– The “bandwagon” effect
– Strong competition from abroad in the home market
15-19
How to Invest Abroad:
Modes of Foreign Involvement
• The globalization process includes a sequence
of decisions regarding where production is to
occur, who is to own or control intellectual
property, and who is to own the actual
production facilities.
• The following exhibit provides a roadmap to
explain this FDI sequence.
15-20
Exhibit 15.9 The FDI Sequence:
Foreign Presence & Foreign Investment
The Firm and its
Competitive Advantage Greater Foreign Presence
Production at Home:
Production Abroad
Exporting
Wholly-Owned
Joint Venture
Greater Affiliate
Foreign
Investment
Greenfield Acquisition of a
Investment Foreign Enterprise
15-21
How to Invest Abroad:
Modes of Foreign Investment
• Exporting versus production abroad:
– There are several advantages to limiting a
firm’s activities to exports as it has none of the
unique risks facing FDI, Joint Ventures,
strategic alliances and licensing with minimal
political risks
– The amount of frontend investment is typically
lower than other modes of foreign involvement
– Some disadvantages include the risks of losing
markets to imitators and global competitors
15-22
How to Invest Abroad:
Modes of Foreign Investment
• Licensing and management contracts versus
control of assets abroad:
– Licensing is a popular method for domestic firms to
profit from foreign markets without the need to
commit sizeable funds
– However, there are disadvantages which include:
• License fees are lower than FDI profits
• Possible loss of quality control
• Establishment of a potential competitor in thirdcountry
markets
• Risk that technology will be stolen
15-23
How to Invest Abroad:
Modes of Foreign Investment
– Management contracts are similar to
licensing, insofar as they provide for some
cash flow from a foreign source without
significant foreign investment or exposure
– Management contracts probably lessen
political risk because the repatriation of
managers is easy
15-24
How to Invest Abroad:
Modes of Foreign Investment
• Joint venture versus wholly owned subsidiary:
– A joint venture is here defined as shared ownership
in a foreign business
– Some advantages of a MNE working with a local
joint venture partner are:
• Better understanding of local customs, mores and
institutions of government
• Providing for capable midlevel management
• Some countries do not allow 100% foreign
ownership
• Local partners have their own contacts and
reputation which aids in business
15-25
How to Invest Abroad:
Modes of Foreign Investment
– However, joint ventures are not as common as
100%owned foreign subsidiaries as a result of
potential conflicts or difficulties including:
• Increased political risk if the wrong partner is chosen
• Divergent views about the need for cash dividends,
or the best source of funds for growth (new financing
versus internally generated funds)
• Transfer pricing issues
• Difficulties in the ability to rationalize production on
a worldwide basis
15-26
How to Invest Abroad:
Modes of Foreign Investment
• Greenfield investment versus acquisition:
– A greenfield investment is defined as establishing a
production or service facility starting from the
ground up
– Compared to a greenfield investment, a cross
border acquisition is clearly much quicker and can
also be a cost effective way to obtain technology
and/or brand names
– Crossborder acquisitions are however, not without
pitfalls, as firms often pay too high a price or utilize
expensive financing to complete a transaction
15-27
How to Invest Abroad:
Modes of Foreign Investment
• The term strategic alliance conveys different meanings
to different observers.
• In one form of crossborder strategic alliance, two
firms exchange a share of ownership with one another.
• A more comprehensive strategic alliance, partners
exchange a share of ownership in addition to creating a
separate joint venture to develop and manufacture a
product or service
• Another level of cooperation might include joint
marketing and servicing agreements in which each
partner represents the other in certain markets.
15-28