One-Dimensional Flow

Modern Compressible Flow, Chap 3

9/30/02; 10/2/02; 10/7/02; 10/9/02
One-Dimensional and Quasi-One-
Dimensional Flow
By one-dimensional flow, we mean a flow
whose properties are functions of only one spatial
coordinate, typically the streamwise coordinate.
Strictly, this requires constant streamtube area.
But when the variation of area A = A(x) is
gradual, we often assume the flow is one-
dimensional. We call it a quasi-one-dimensional
flow.

One-Dimensional Flow Equations
For a steady 1-D flow with constant cross-
sectional area, no body force, and no shaft
work,

2 2 1 1
u u =
2
2 2 2
2
1 1 1
u p u p + = +
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
u
h q
u
h + = + +
(3.2)
(3.5)
(3.9)
Sound Wave
A sound wave, by definition, is a weak pressure wave with
negligible friction and thermal conduction effects. In other
words, the thermodynamic process inside the sound wave
is isentropic.
The sound speed, a, can be expressed as



So the sound speed is a direct measure of compressibility.
s
s
v p
a
t
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
(3.18)
Sound Speed and Mach Number
For thermally perfect gas and calorically perfect
gas,

At sea level, a = 340.0 m/s = 1117 ft/s
The Mach number is defined as M=V/a.
M<1, subsonic flow
M = 1, sonic flow
M > 1, supersonic flow
RT
p
a

= = (3.19-20)
Total (Stagnation) Conditions - 1
For a steady, inviscid, adiabatic flow with
negligible body force, we can prove that


or


along the streamline.



0
) 2 / (
2
=
+
Dt
V h D
. 2 /
2
const V h = +
Total (Stagnation) Conditions 2
Total Temperature
Imagine a fluid element in a flow is brought to zero speed
adiabatically, the resulting temperature is defined as the
total temperature T
o
, and the corresponding enthalpy as the
total enthalpy h
o
.
For a steady, inviscid, adiabatic flow with negligible body
force, h
o
= const. along a streamline. For a calorically
perfect gas, this implies T
o
= const. along the streamline.
If all streamlines are from a common freestream, then both
T
o
and h
o
are constant throughout the entire flow.
Total (Stagnation) Conditions - 3
Stagnation speed of sound:
where the subscript o denotes the Mach
zero condition arrived via an isentropic
process.
Total (stagnation) density:



o o
RT a =
o
o
o

RT
p
=
Total (Stagnation) Conditions 4
Total Pressure and Density
Imagine that a fluid element is brought to
zero speed isentropically, the resulting
pressure and density are defined as the total
pressure p
o
and total density
o
,
respectively.
Since an isentropic process is adiabatic, the
resulting total temperature is the same as
that defined before.
Characteristic Conditions - 1
T*
If a fluid element is brought to sonic speed
adiabatically, the resulting temperature is defined
as T*.
The speed of sound at this hypothetical Mach 1 is
defined as a*, which for thermally perfect gas and
calorically perfect gas is

* *
RT a =
Characteristic Conditions - 2

Characteristic Mach number: V/a*,
where * denotes the reference Mach 1
condition arrived via an adiabatic
process.

Energy Equations - 1
Without Heat Addition
For 1-D flow without heat addition, the energy
equation for calorically perfect gas can be
expressed in alternative forms as follows:

2 2
2
2
2
1
u
T c
u
T c
p p
+ = +
2 1 2 1
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
u a u a
+

= +

2 1 2 1
2
2
21
2
2
1
1
1
u p u p
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

= +
|
|
.
|

\
|

(3.22)
(3.24)
(3.25)
Energy Equations - 2
Without Heat Addition
From the previous page, we have



So for each point in the flow, there is an
associated a*. For an adiabatic flow, a* is
constant in the flow.

2
*
2 2
) 1 ( 2
1
2 1
a
u a

+
= +

(3.26)
Energy Equations - 3
Without Heat Addition
Similarly, for the stagnation condition, we
can prove



o p p
T c
u
T c = +
2
2
2
2
1
1 M
T
T
o

+ =

(3.27)
(3.28)
Energy Equations - 4
Without Heat Addition
For isentropic, calorically perfect gas,
1 2
)
2
1
1 (

+ =

M
p
p
o
1
1
2
)
2
1
1 (

+ =

M
o
(3.30)
(3.31)
Energy Equations - 5
Without Heat Addition
The earlier equations yields,

1
2
*
2
*
+
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|

o o
T
T
a
a
1 *
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

o
p
p
1
1
*
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

o
( )
( ) 1
1
2
2
*
2

(

+
=

M
M
(3.34)
(3.36)
(3.35)
(3.37)
1-D Flow Energy Equations
(Continued)
( ) 4 . 1 833 . 0
1
2
*
= =
+
=

at
T
T
o
) 4 . 1 528 . 0 ( )
1
2
(
1
*
= =
+
=

at
p
p
o
) 4 . 1 634 . 0 ( )
1
2
(
1
1
*
= =
+
=

at
o
M*
) 1 (
) 1 (
2
2
*
2

(

+
=

M
M
From the above equation,

M* = 1 if M =1
M* < 1 if M < 1
M* > 1 if M > 1

+
ifM M
1
1
*

(3.37)
Normal Shock
Normal Shocks
The normal shock wave (and the shock waves in
general) is a sudden discontinuity for flow
properties.
By definition, a normal shock wave is a shock
wave that is perpendicular to the flow. The flow
velocity decreases across the normal shock wave;
the flow is supersonic ahead of the normal shock
wave and subsonic after the shock wave.
The static pressure, temperature and density all
increase across the normal shock wave.
Shock Waves
If the flow is supersonic (relative to a moving
vehicle), then V
inf
> a
inf
so the sound waves can no
longer propagate upstream ahead of the vehicle.
Instead, they coalesce ahead of the vehicle,
forming a thin shock wave. See Fig. 4.5.
The shock wave is usually a few mean free path
thick, say, 10
-5
cm for air at standard conditions.
The flow is adiabatic across the shock waves.
Normal Shock Relations - 1
Prandtl Relation
For calorically perfect gas,

2 1
2
*
u u a =
1
*
2
*
1
= M M
So the Mach number behind the normal shock
wave is always subsonic.
or
(3.47)
(3.48)
Normal Shock Relations - 2
For calorically perfect gas with a given ,
M
2
,
2
/
1
, p
2
/p
1
, and T
2
/T
1
are functions of M
1
only:
2 / ) 1 (
] 2 / ) 1 [( 1
2
1
2
1
2
2

+
=


M
M
M
) 1 (
1
2
1
2
1
1
2

+
+ = M
p
p

2
1
2
1
1
2
) 1 ( 2
) 1 (
M
M
+
+
=

(3.51) from (3.37) and (3.48)

(3.57)
(3.53)
Normal Shock Relations - 3
Furthermore,
( )
(

+
+
(

+
+ = =
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
) 1 (
) 1 ( 2
1
1
2
1
M
M
M
h
h
T
T

(3.59)
Normal Shock Relations - 4
Substituting eqs. (3.57) and (3.59) into


we have
1
2
1
2
1 2
ln ln
p
p
R
T
T
c s s
p
=
( )
( )
(

+
+
)
`

+
+
(

+
+ =
1
1
2
1 ln
) 1 (
) 1 ( 2
1
1
2
1 ln
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1 1 2
M R
M
M
M c s s
p

(3.60)
Normal Shock Relations - 5
From the 2
nd
law, s
2
>s
1
only if M
1
>1. So the only
physically possible process is .
For ,


At M
1
=1, M
2
=2. Then we have Mach wave with no finite
property changes across the wave. Also,


Note that for thermally perfect gas, the changes across the
normal shock wave depend on both M
1
and T
1
. For
chemically reacting gases, they depend on M
1
, T
1
and p
1
.
1
1
> M
1 , , , 1
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
> s
T
T
p
p
M

1
1
> M
6 lim , 378 . 0 lim
1
2
2
1 1
= =

M M
M
Normal Shock Relations - 6
For a stationary normal shock, the total
enthalpy is constant across the shock wave.
For calorically perfect gas, since h = c
p
T,
the total temperature is constant across the
normal shock wave:
02 1
T T
o
=
(3.61)
Normal Shock Relations - 7
For calorically perfect gas, the total pressure
decreases across the normal shock:



If the shock wave is not stationary, neither the
total enthalpy nor the total temperatures are
constant across the shock wave.

( )
R
s s
o
o
e
p
p
/
1 2
1
2

=
(3.64)
Normal Shock Relations - 8
Hugoniot Equation
The normal shock can be viewed as thermodynamic device
that compresses gas following the Hugoniot equation:


Since e
1
is a function p
1
and v
1
and e
2
a function of p
2
and
v
2
, for given p
1
and v
1
upstream of a normal shock, each
point on the Hugoniot curve (the p
2
v
2
curve represented by
the Hugoniot equation) represents a different shock with a
different upstream M
1
. See Figure 3.11.

) (
2
2 1
2 1
1 2
v v
p p
e e
+
=
1-D Flow with Heat Addition - 1
For supersonic flow in region 1 when heat is
added
a. Mach number decreases, M
2
<M
1
b. Velocity decreases, u
2
< u
1
c. Pressure increases, p
2
>p
1
d. Total pressure decreases, p
o2
<p
o1
e. Temperature increases, T
2
>T
1
f. Total temperature increases, T
o2
>T
o1
For cooling, all trends are opposite.
1-D Flow With Heat Addition - 2
For subsonic flow in region 1 when heat is
added
a. Mach number increases, M
2
>M
1
b. Velocity increases, u
2
>u
1
c. Pressure decreases, p
2
<p
1
d. Total pressure decreases, p
o2
<p
o1
e. Temperature increases for M
1
<
-1/2
and decreases for
M
1
>
-1/2
f. Total temperature increases, T
o2
>T
o1
For cooling, all trends are opposite.
1-D Flow With Heat Addition - 3
Rayleigh Curve (Fig. 3.13)
The Rayleigh curve is a curve for a give set of upstream
condition on the Mollier (h-s) diagram for 1-D heat
addition flow. Each point on the curve corresponds to a
different value of q added or taken away.
For the 1-D flow, the effect of heat addition is always to
drive the Mach number towards 1.
The maximum entropy location corresponds to the sonic
location. The flow is said to be choked at this condition
because of any further increase in q is not possible without
a drastic revision of the upstream condition in region 1.
1-D Flow With Friction - 1
For supersonic inlet flow, the effect of friction on
the downstream flow is
a. Mach number decreases, M
2
<M
1
b. Velocity decreases, u
2
<u
1
c. Pressure increases, p
2
<p
1
d. Total pressure decreases, p
o2
<p
o1
e. Temperature increases, T
2
>T
1
1-D Flow With Friction - 2
For subsonic flow, the effect of friction on
downstream flow is
a. Mach number increases, M
2
>M
1
b. Velocity increases, u
2
>u
1
c. Pressure decreases, p
2
<p
1
d. Total pressure decreases, p
o2
<
po1
e. Temperature decreases, T
2
<T
1
1-D Flow With Friction - 3
Fanno Curve (3.15)
The Fanno curve is a curve on the Mollier (h-s) diagram
for a given upstream condition for different amount of
friction (different length of pipe).
The maximum entropy condition corresponds to the sonic
condition at which the flow is choked. Friction always
drive the Mach number towards 1.
Once the sonic condition is reached at the exit, any
increase in pipe length is not possible without drastic
revision of the inlet condition.
Within the framework of 1-D theory, it is not possible to
first slow a supersonic flow to the sonic condition and then
to further slow it to subsonic speeds also by friction.