Professional Documents
Culture Documents
By Amir Yaqoob
Introduction
THE BANDWIDTH
resource
Engineers
are always in try to find ways to take the maximum capacity out from the available limited Bandwidth
To
effectively support a large number of users, some technique for sharing the spectrum is required
Techniques
used for this purpose are called Multiple Access Techniques e.g. FDMA, TDMA, SDMA, CDMA e.t.c.
CDMA
All users are on the same frequency at the same time, but are distinguished by different codes
What is CDMA?
It is a digital multiple access technique for sharing the frequency spectrum (Bandwidth) CDMA is a method in which users occupy the same time and frequency allocations and are distinguished by unique assigned codes The signals are separated at the receiver by using a correlator (a special demodulator) that accepts signals only from the desired channel Undesired signals contribute only to the noise and are ignored
CDMA Standards
There are several CDMA implementations that are currently deployed or under development The first commercial and most widely deployed CDMA implementation is cdmaOne or IS-95A (2G) and IS95B (2.5G)
Other CDMA standard is CDMA2000 (3G) which includes CDMA 2000 1X, 1X EV DO, 1X EV DV
CDMA Features
Multiple users utilize the same frequency carrier of 1.25MHz The SNR for the receivers typically used in commercial CDMA ranges from 3dB to 9dB SNR= Eb/No where Eb is energy per bit and No is power spectral density of (noise + interferences) Eb/No corresponds to C/I in GSM
Why CDMA?
Dense urban areas have small cell radius in case of AMPS/DAMPS/GSM, which means large number of cell sites to cover a given region and thus larger CAPEX/OPEX as well as more frequent hand-off
CDMA receiver treat all the incoming signals as the noise signals except the one actually desired by it The undesired noise signals are summed up and are ignored As its name implies, CDMA assigns unique codes to each communication to differentiate it from others in the same spectrum
Each CDMA signal consists of a different pseudorandom binary sequence called PN code that modulates the carrier resulting in spreading of the spectrum
The required signals in the receivers are separated using a correlator that accepts only the signals from selected binary sequence and despreads its spectrum The other users signal whose code does not match are not despread and contribute only as noise
The receiver correlates its input with the desired noise signal and enhances the SNR at the detector This enhancement provides adequate SNR at the detector that it overcomes the summed undesired noise signal
Since all undesired signals contribute to the noise for the actual wanted signal Therefore the QoS in CDMA degrades as the number of users increase in the a given region Because this increases the noise level for a particular signal to be detected
There are ways to overcome this problem and improving the SNR of the desired signal: One is by power control system explained latter Other is by using narrow pass filter with high processing gain In the second technique all desired signals are passed through a filter of narrow bandwidth after being detected from the correlator The undesired signals are eliminated by an amount of the processing gain The processing gain is the ratio of the bandwidth before the correlator to the bandwidth after the correlator This improvement ratio further improves the SNR for the desired signal
1. 2.
CDMA MAY BE deployed by a service provider who already has an established GSM network In such a case different technologies CANNOT co-exist in the same spectrum When CDMA is deployed as an overlay, the carrier MUST set aside spectrum not only for the CDMA signal but also for a guard band and a guard zone A portion of the frequencies adjacent to a CDMA channel must be reserved as a guard band between CDMA and any other technology This is necessary to prevent interference between networks of different technologies, even when different technologies are used If an adjacent carrier is using CDMA, a smaller guard band is required in that case a well
When CDMA is deployed as an overlay and the two technologies have to use the same frequency then there is a requirement for a guard zone between cells using different technologies on the same frequency since they cannot co-exist
The CDMA system can also be a hybrid of FDMA & CDMA technique where the total system BW is divided into a set of wideband channels, each of which contains a number of CDMA signals This is the case in which each operator will have more than 1 carrier as being offered by PTA
Same wideband frequency of 1.25 MHz is reused in every cell Total interference for a mobile station in a cell is equal to the sum of interferences from other mobile stations in the same cell plus interference from mobile stations in neighboring cells The frequency reuse factor of CDMA system is 1 and frequency reuse efficiency of a CDMA system is 56% and is determined by SIR that results from all the system users within range, instead of users in any given cell
The frequency reuse factor determines the number of times a frequency can be reused within a system
The Frequency reuse efficiency is the ratio of interference from mobile stations within a cell to the total interference from all cells
Advantages of CDMA
Capacity increases of 8 to 10 times that of an AMPS analog system and 4 to 5 times that of a GSM system Improved call quality, with better and more consistent sound as compared to AMPS systems Simplified system planning through the use of the same frequency in every sector of every cell Enhanced privacy Improved coverage characteristics, allowing for the possibility of fewer cell sites Increased talk time for portables
Advantages of CDMA
1.
2.
3. 4. 5.
Coverage
1- Coverage
Providing adequate coverage is a basic requirement of a wireless system Coverage of a BTS or network is impacted by the capacity requirements of the system, terrain of the area, and power of the base station and mobiles
It is estimated that CDMA has a 1.7 to 3 times more coverage than TDMA
A Lie
ZTE Engineer says Coverage depends on frequency and not on technology Thats a Lie
Coverage
Coverage depends both on frequency as well as the technology Due to high processing gain (strong coding and interleaving techniques), CDMA cells can cover a larger area for the same amount of available power Forward and reverse link power control helps a CDMA network dynamically expand the coverage area (cell breathing) How??? Explained latter This, along with the capacity advantages, makes CDMA the most economical system for cellular and PCS
Coverage Aspects
The major parameters that determine the CDMA digital system coverage are: Link Budget
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Antenna Height
Environment
Morphology
Subscriber Density
Link Budget
The link budget defines the maximum amount of power a communications link can lose without losing a call
Each technology will have a different link budget due to the characteristics of the Technology
Antenna Height
Radio signals in the cellular and Personal Communication Service (PCS) frequency range travel as far as one can see This is known as the line of sight (LOS) Therefore, the higher a cell or mobile antenna the greater the coverage
For CDMA networks the antenna height, radiated power, and hardware call capacity must all be balanced for optimal network performance and capacity
The terrain (hills, rivers, trees, etc.) causes the radio signals to attenuate differently and are considered in the network design Rural, suburban & urban areas have their own characteristics which also attenuate the signal The question is how to estimate the attenuated signal for each of the different case????????? RF models (Okmura-Hata, X-Loss) have been developed to characterize the signals attenuation in each of these environments Network planning tools (Atoll, NetPlan, ATDI) use these models to determine coverage in software simulation
Subscriber Density
The coverage of a CDMA Network is greatly affected by the number of subscribers in a given area The number of subscribers and coverage is inversely proportional to each other That is, as the number of users increase in a cell, the coverage area reduces Once all available resources (frequency, time, or power) have been utilized to keep the coverage area same, new cell sites are installed to accommodate the capacity and overcome the problem resulting from the reduction of coverage area
Capacity
2- Capacity
The theoretical capacity of CDMA may be more than 20 times that of AMPS, NMT & TACS The practical capacity of CDMA is constraint by irregular coverage, non-uniform load and uncontrollable influences CDMA has 4.4 times greater capacity than AMPS in case of omni-directional and 13 times greater in case of tri-sector CDMA capacity largely increasing through sectoring
Capacity Aspects
The major parameters that determine the CDMA digital system capacity are: Processing gain Require Eb/No Number of sectors in the cell Frequency reuse efficiency
1. 2. 3. 4.
CDMA Capacity
The capacity of CDMA is almost the same as that of AMPS if NOT considered neighbor cell interference Here comes the real advantage of CDMA that while considering the neighbor cell interference, AMPS is seriously effected, where as in CDMA the interference that comes from the neighbor cells is only 60% of the own cell interference and this is not terribly sensitive as the mobiles are power-controlled in a sensible way
Moreover, the SNR and Capacity are reciprocal: It is possible to trade capacity by adjusting the SNR
CDMA is an interference-limited technology which means that the capacity is limited by the amount of interference in the channel When a cell becomes loaded (more users) the interference rises, requiring more power
Eventually no more users can be added and mobiles on the fringe of coverage drop their calls
The coverage is then reduced to an area where mobiles can make a call This mechanism is refer as cell breathing and that is why the capacity is known as soft capacity
CDMA Capacity
The parameters in the CDMA capacity equation are defined as follows: N = Number of users W = Bandwidth of the CDMA System R = Rate of the vocoder GS = Sectorization Gain GV = Voice activity Gain Eb = Energy per bit (Joules) I0 = Interference Power Spectral Density f = Percentage of interference from other cells
CDMA Capacity
This means that the statistics of all users are more important that those of a single user. I.e. the net interference to any given signal is the average of all users received power times the number of users As long as the ratio of received power to the average power density is greater than threshold value, the channel will provide an acceptable signal quality
Maximum theoretical capacity of cdmaOne (IS-95A/B) is 128 calls per 1.25MHz channel per cell
Maximum practical capacity of cdmaOne is 64 calls per cell per 1.25 MHz channel This reduction in capacity is due to thermal noise consideration Maximum practical capacity of CDMA 2000 is 128 calls per cell per 1.25MHz channel
Air link capacity is the primary concern for operators They want to be able to service the maximum number of subscribers with the limited resources (frequency spectrum) available The more subscribers a technology is able to serve the more efficient the technologythis is known as spectral efficiency For CDMA the air link capacity may be estimated using the reverse link
Metric: Calls per sector Bandwidth: 1.25 MHz Data rate: 9.6 or 14.4 Kbps Number of sectors: 1 omni directional Frequency reuse: 7 (FDMA and TDMA) Interference: 50% (CDMA) Eb/No: 7 dB for CDMA Voice activity: 40% or a gain of 2.5
The forward link capacity is dependent on the Power Amplifier (PA) and the power settings for the individual code channels When the maximum power out has been reached no more subscribers can be served
Total Power - ( Pilot + Sync + Paging ) / traffic power = number of traffic channels
15 watts - ( 3 watts + 0.5 watts + 0.3 watts ) / 0.7 watts = 16 traffic channels
There is always a trade-off between maximum coverage and maximum capacity How? Let us see The required power to be transmitted by the mobiles increases as the user moves to the fringe of the coverage area This results in the power run out of the battery Therefore the system load should be controlled so that the planned service never experience coverage failure because of this phenomenon The mobile users at the fringe are then hand-over to better and closer service area in this case where they transmit less power This results in the reduced coverage area of the given cell
Clarity
3- Clarity
The clarity of sound in CDMA system is achieved by the following factors: Rake Receiver: The rake receiver allows the BTS and mobile to demodulate multi-path signals that can be combined to improve the signal quality resulting in fewer errors and a better quality received voice signal Variable Rate Vocoder: The dynamic rate of the vocoder reduces the amount of data transmitted for each person and thus reduces the interference
When there is an increase in background noise, caused by traffic or wind blowing, the noise threshold in the vocoder increases encoding only the voice, not the noise
This provides for a clearer signal and also less interference in the network because the data rate is for variable voice, not constant noise
Clarity
Power Control: Dynamic power control reduces errors by keeping the power at an optimal level The power control in CDMA delivers just enough power to make good communications work
Wideband Signal: CDMAs wideband signals does not suffer from the same effects of fading experience in an FDMA or TDMA system Encoding and Interleaving: Strong encoding and interleaving reduces the effects of fading Soft Hand-off: The soft hand off in CDMA reduces the interference and power requirements for maintaining the link
Cost
3- Cost
Cell Coverage Because of increased coverage for each BTS in a wireless network fewer BTSs are required in the network to cover a given area More subscribers CDMA can support more subscribers in a system, increasing the service providers revenue potential
Customer Satisfaction
4- Customer Satisfaction
The subscriber is flourished with the following benefits: Good Voice Quality Long Battery Life No Cross-Talk Privacy
1. 2. 3.
4.
Privacy in CDMA
CDMA system is considered highly secure It provides great privacy immunity to cross talk, air time fraud and scanning receiver All this is achieved by scrambling and encryption of digital voice channels
In the late 1940s, Claude Shannon published a relationship between bandwidth, signal-to-noise ratio, and the capacity of a channel Shannons capacity (data rate) equation is the basis for spread spectrum systems
According to it spread spectrum systems typically operate at a very low SNR, but use a very large bandwidth in order to provide an acceptable data rate per user
The signal is spread over much wider band width is to keep the SNR as low as possible, which increases the system capacity
Direct sequence spread spectrum is the technique that is used in CDMA systems The information signal is narrowband signal on the order of less than 10 KHz The energy from this narrowband signal is spread over a much larger bandwidth (1.25 MHz) by multiplying the information signal by a wideband spreading code
CDMA Signal
Generation & Detection
Voice is digitized at PSTN Digitized voice is Vocoded at BSC Digital vocoded signal is encoded and interleaved at BTS The encoded and interleaved signal is spread (channelized) at BTS The final signal is converted and transmitted as Radio signal at BTS
2.
3.
4.
5.
Step 1
A/D Converter:
The voice signal is converted to a digital signal using PCM transmitting voice at a rate of standard 64kbps
Step 2
Vocoder:
The vocoder is used to compress the digital signal from the A/D Converter The vocoder, used in a CDMA system, compresses the voice signal into various data rates, 8 kbps or 13 kbps The data rate is dynamically determined by the users speech activity
Step 3
Encoder:
The purpose of the encoder is to build redundancy into the signal If an error occurs the redundancy can help recover the lost information Decoding at the receiver uses a majority logic rule (two out of three wins) A simple coding scheme is shown in this example The digital message consists of four bits (A,B,C,D) of vocoded data
Encoding
Step 3 contd..
Interleaver:
Interleaving is a simple, but powerful, method of reducing the effects of burst errors and recovering bits when burst errors occur Deinterleaving at the receiver will spread any burst errors that occur during transmission and make it simpler to decode
Without Interleaver
With Interleaver
Step 4
Spreader
The encoded voice data is encoded using a code that will separate it from other encoded voice data
This process, known as channelization, will spread the encoded symbols over the entire bandwidth of the CDMA channel (1.25 MHz).
The code used to channelize and spread the encoded voice data is known to the receiver The receiver will use the code to despread/decode the signal and recover the encoded voice data
Step 5
Transmission
The channelized data (spreaded) from all calls will be combined into a one signal that is converted to an RF signal which is transmitted over the air through antenna assembly
At the receiver (mobile) the composite signal is received and the code used in spreading is applied to recover the users information The information from all the other users will remain as noise The demodulation is done in following steps:
Step 1 & 2
1-Down Conversion
The receiver must take the information and convert it from an RF signal to a signal usable by the receivers 2-Despreading
The receiver knows the code used to spread the users voice data The receiver will use the same code to despread the signal
Step 3, 4 & 5
3-Deinterleaving
After the signal is despread, the receiver will deinterleave and decode the signal into the original vocoded voice data 4-Decompression
The decompression of the voice signal is done at the vocoder The vocoder takes the packet of data and uses the reverse process to produce a PCM signal 5-Voice Recovery
A CDMA signal is generated by spreading the symbols by a wideband code sequence that is produced at a rate of 1.2288 Mcps
This much chip rates generates a CDMA signal that is spreaded over a bandwidth of 1.25 MHz More spreading, more data rate available and thus more capacity
Rake Receiver
Rake Receiver
The rake receiver is multiple receivers in one There is a rake receiver at both the mobile and BTS
Each multiple received signal is independently demodulated at both the receivers (MS and BTS)
The demodulated signals are then combined thus reducing the errors
The reduction in errors by using Rake Receiver will have a corresponding reduction in the power required The lower power used results in a decrease in the level of interference, resulting in an increase in the system capacity
Less Errors ~ Lower Power ~ Less Interference ~ Increased Capacity
Rake Receiver
Rake receiver is therefore basically 3 to 4 parallel correlators combined together allowing individual path arrivals to be tracked independently and the sum of their received signal strength is then used to demodulate the signal Demodulation based on the sum of the signals is then much more reliable This concept of multiple correlators also forms the basis of soft-hand off in CDMA
The Rake Receiver therefore also allows the subscriber to perform a soft handoff
It allows the mobile station to simultaneously track the signals from two different cells
The rake receiver is essentially a set of four or more receivers One of the receivers constantly searches for different multipaths and helps to direct the other three receiver to lock onto strong multipath signals Each receiver then demodulates the signal corresponding to a strong multipath The results are combined to make the signal stronger
Rake Receiver
A codec is an analog-to-digital and digital-toanalog converter The figure depicts the codec as an analog-todigital converter whose output is a wide band PCM signal (bit rate = 64 kbps)
The vocoder compresses the output of the codec to a lower bit rate to reduce bandwidth
The variable rate vocoder takes advantage of low speech activity and transmits at lower rates, thus reducing the average transmission to about 4 kbps CDMA systems can employ several vocoders, currently, 8 kbps and 13 kbps vocoders are defined
Variable rate vocoders operate at one of three to four rates, depending on the level of speaker activity
When speaker activity is high, the vocoder produces bits at the Full rate
When speaker activity is absent, the vocoder produces bits at the Eighth (1/8) rate
Half (1/2) and Quarter (1/4) rates are used for transition periods between speech and silence
8K or 13 K Vocoder?
More capacity can be achieved if 8K Vocoder is used, since it compresses the data more than a 13K Vocoder
For cellular and PCS a CDMA system may have a capacity of 22 simultaneous calls per sector When the BTS has 3 sectors 66 simultaneous calls can be accommodated on one 1.25 MHz carrier For wireless local loop a CDMA system may have a capacity of 45 simultaneous calls per sector When the BTS has 3 sectors 135 simultaneous calls can be accommodated on one 1.25 MHz carrier
For cellular and PCS a CDMA system may have a capacity of 14 simultaneous calls per sector When the BTS has 3 sectors 42 simultaneous calls can be accommodated For wireless local loop a CDMA system may have a capacity of 30 simultaneous calls per sector When the BTS has 3 sectors 90 simultaneous class can be accommodated
Thing to Do
We Make Sure that the Vocoder We Obtain from the Vendor is 8K
Coherent Detection of the Forward Link Coherent detection requires that the carrier signal used in the transmitter and the receiver are perfectly matched in both frequency and phase In cdmaOne system, the Forward link is coherent link Non-coherent Detection of the Reverse Link of IS-95 Non-coherent detection refers to the case where the phase information is not available to the receiver Note: For CDMA2000 Radio Configuration RC-3 to RC-6, a Pilot is provided on the Reverse link and therefore coherent demodulation can be employed
CDMA Channels
Traffic Channels Control Channels
On the forward link there are 4 channels used to transmit control and voice data to the mobile These channels are:
1. 2.
3.
4.
1-Pilot Channel
The pilot channel is constantly transmitted The mobile uses the pilot signal to acquire the system After the mobile has acquired the system the pilot is used for signal strength measurement The strength of the pilot is used to determine the power required for mobile transmit The pilot contains no information but it is the strongest signal on the forward link, containing at least 20% of the total power on the forward link
2-Sync Channel
The sync channel is used to providing critical timing information to the mobile Once the mobile is synchronized with the base station the sync channel is ignored
3-Paging Channel
The paging channel is used to transmit overhead information i.e. commands to the mobile When a call is being set up the commands and traffic channel assignment are sent on the paging channel
Once a traffic channel is established the paging channel is ignored by the mobile
4-Traffic Channel
Forward Traffic channel is used to send voice data from the BTS to MS
On the reverse link there are 2 types of channels used to transmit control and voice data to the mobile These channels are: Access Traffic
1.
2.
1-Access Channel
The access channel is used by the mobile when not assigned to a traffic channel The access channel is used by the mobile to register with the network, originate calls, respond to pages and commands from the base station, and transmit overhead messages to the base station
2-Traffic Channel
Reverse traffic channel is used to send voice data from the MS to BTS
Eb/No is the ratio between the Bit Energy and the Noise (or Interference) in the network
In digital technologies, Eb/No is the quality metric that determines how good a call will be
If the Eb/No is too low, there will be a higher Frame Error Rate (FER). Therefore higher Eb/No is required In CDMA, however, a higher than required Eb/No will increase the noise level of the system, directly impacting the reverse link capacity How and where FER detection is done will affect the coverage of a site and ultimately the Network If the detection is done at the Base Station Controller (BSC), there will be a mean Eb/No of 6 - 7 for mobility systems If FER detection were done at the Base Transceiver Station (BTS), then more power would be required during a handoff When more power is required on a traffic channel link there will be an increase in interference
Because of where this detection is done, the Eb/No may need to be set 1.3 dB higher
2.
3. 4.
Step 1 & 2
Initialization Mode
The mobile performs initialization when the phone is turned on and at other times during normal operation In Initialization Mode, the mobile acquires system via Pilot code channel and gets synchronize with system via Sync code channel Idle Mode
In Idle mode the mobile and base station communicate and exchange overhead information over Access and Paging code channels when NOT involved in a call
In the Idle state, the mobile is mainly listening to the Paging Channel for incoming messages
The Sync Channel is not monitored in this state
Step 3 & 4
Access Mode Mobile accesses the network via the Access code channel When the mobile signal the Base Station, a transmission on the Access Channel is required The mobile transitions to the Access state, but continues to monitor the Paging Channel Traffic Mode When a call for a mobile is placed the mobile will receive a page on the Paging channel The mobile responds on the Access channel and Traffic channels are established Once assigned to a Traffic Channel, the mobile is no longer monitoring the Paging Channel
When a call is placed from a mobile the call is placed using the Access channel The base station responds on the Paging channel and Traffic channels are established
Hand-Off
The process of transferring a channel from one cell/sector into another (ITU)
Types of Hand-Off
1.
2.
3. 4. 5. 6.
Hard Hand-Off Soft Hand-Off Softer Hand-Off Soft Softer Hand-Off Idle Hand off Hard Hand off (CDMA to analog)
1-Hard Hand-Off
In hard handoff, the mobile must disconnect its connection with the current cell before connecting to the new cell Also known as BREAK BEFORE MAKE Does not occur in CDMA systems A hard handoff will also occur when the mobile moves from the coverage of one network to another
2-Soft Hand-Off
Soft handoff is the process of establishing a link with a target cell before breaking the link with a serving cell In a CDMA system, while a call is in progress, the mobile assists the network in making a new connection before breaking the old connection, this is called Soft Hand-Off How does this happen???? Mobiles continuously search for Pilot Channels on the current frequency, to detect potential candidates for handoff A new connection can be made prior to breaking the old connection because CDMA cells use the same frequency
Soft Hand-Off
Soft Hand-Off
Soft handoff refers to the state where the mobile is in communication with multiple Base Stations at the same time Soft handoff is a make-before-break type of handoff, whereby a mobile acquires a target code channel from the new BTS before breaking an existing one Soft handoff requires that both the serving and the target cells be transmitting on the same CDMA frequencies for soft hand-off to actually happen Soft handoffs occur between cells, sectors in a cell, or combination of cells and sectors
Allows both original cell and new cell to temporarily serve the call during the handoff transition The transition is from original cell to both cells and then to new cell only
While the MS is located in the transition region between the two cells (on the boundary), the call is supported by communication through both cells, thereby eliminating the repeated request to handle the call back and forth between two cell sites The original cell site will only discontinue handling the call when the MS is firmly established with the new cell site
This reduces the probability of call drop and virtually makes the handoff undetectable by the user in the new cell
Soft hand off property also helps minimizes the number of cells required by increasing the coverage area of each cell To understand this concept, consider a system design on fading margin of 10dB (the standard fading margin) to obtain 90% coverage but since with soft hand off one call is supported by two paths at the same time therefore if either path is available, then the coverage will be satisfactory This means that is fading margin is reduced to 4dB, it will still provide the same coverage and with 10dB margin, sufficient gain in coverage can be obtained This gives cells of bigger radius thus reducing the number of cells required to cover a given area
As the mobile moves from one coverage area to another, the mobile detects a new pilot and the base station establishes a new connection for the mobile A communications link is established with new BTS while the old link is maintained The base station instructs the mobile to begin using the new traffic channel with the appropriate code Each BTS participating in a soft handoff transmits identical frames The mobile combines these frames and then forwards a single frame to the vocoder On the Reverse link, each BTS independently decodes and then delivers vocoded frames to the BSC
Increased capacity and coverage: Soft handoff considerably increases both the capacity of a heavily loaded cellular system and the coverage of each individual cell in a lightly loaded system Reduced call dropping probabilities: Handoff areas are areas in which the Forward link is the weakest but a link to two Forward channels from 2 BTSs at a time decreases the probability of call dropping Improved voice quality: Cell boundaries usually offer poor coverage coupled with increased interference from other cells; therefore, Forward Traffic Channel diversity from additional cells will improve voice quality
3-Softer Hand-Off
Softer Hand-Off involves traffic channels from two sectors of same BTS Signals received by different sectors can be combined by the rake receiver in the BTS The combined voice signal received from each sector is forwarded to the selector at the BSC
Softer Hand-Off
4-Soft/Softer Hand-Off
Multiple cells & sectors may be involved in a handoff The figure shows that a mobile is in softer handoff with two sectors of one cell and is also in soft handoff with another cell
5-Idle Hand-Off
Idle handoffs occur when the mobile is NOT involved in a call The mobile monitors the pilot of a BTS while searching for the pilots from the neighboring BTS When the mobile detects a pilot that is stronger than the current pilot (3dB) an idle handoff is performed without the assistance of the base station
6-Hard Hand-Off
A mobile using CDMA in a cellular system can also handoff to a FDMA (analog) system Such kind of hand-off is called Hard Hand-Off After the hard hand off has occurred the phone will attempt to acquire a CDMA network If none is available the phone will switch to analog mode
Hard handoffs, however, may also occur between CDMA cells CDMA-to-CDMA hard handoffs are due to frequency mismatches, frame offset misalignment, or disjoint cells (cells served by different BSCs) Dual Mode Mobile sets are required for this kind of hand-off
As the mobile station during hand-off is in connection with both the cells, therefore it is using the resources twice, that is why 30% erlang is kept higher just for the purpose of hand-off while designing a network
CDMA will not work without an effective power control, because of the near-far problem The near-far problem arises when a mobile user near a cell jams a user that is distant from the cell assuming both are transmitting at the same power This problem may be present despite high processing gain An effective method to eliminate the near-far effect is therefore necessary and that is power control Additionally, other factors such as varying path loss and fading result in the need to control the mobiles transmission power as well
A combination of open loop and closed loop power control commands are used to make power adjustments of the mobile stations to maintain the power level required for adequate performance
These control commands are made based on the measurements of the received power at the mobile station and the base station Power control commands are sent to the mobile 800 times per each second (after every 1.25ms)
Control of the mobiles transmission power is more critical than control of the Base Stations transmission power Both the open loop and the closed loop controls can affect the transmission power level on a continual basis as they work together to adjust power The objective of power control is to ensure that signals from all mobiles are received at the Base Station with the same received power
Uplink in CDMA is subject to near far problem The MS close to BTS has a much lower path loss than far away mobile If all of the mobiles transmit at same power level then the closed by mobile would apparently jam the far away mobile stations
CDMA uses power control to provide only the power required at the time it is actually needed, and thus reduces the average power by transmitting at high levels only during fades
It can be shown that capacity is maximized if all users are controlled so that their signals reach the Base Station at approximately the same power level CDMA use a two-step approach to achieve this: Open loop power control: An original estimate is made by the mobile
Closed loop power control: A faster correction is made to this estimate, based on instruction provided to the mobile by the Base Station
Open loop is an estimate of what power the phone should use to transmit The estimate is determined based on the strength of the mean signal power received by the mobile In Open loop power control the mobile estimates the path loss between the cell and the mobile by measuring the received signal level at the mobile
Closed loop is used when there is a call The network will send a command to the mobile to either increase or decrease power The command is determined on the quality of the information received at the BTS
In closed loop power control the power of the Mobile station is controlled in such a way that desired SNR is received at the BTS Note that closed loop power control is SNR controlled and not just the power control Each BTS estimates the received SNR of its mobile signal, if the received SNR is higher than set point SNR then decreased power command is sent on forward control channel If the received SNR is lower than set point SNR then increased power command is sent
The BTS independently adjusts the power for each forward traffic channel based on information received from the mobile
In addition to controlling the self-interference (controlling the power mobile stations) the power control system also provides automatic adaptive anti-interference function How ? Let us See!!!!!!!!!! For example a jammer starts transmitting near the cell resulting in degraded SNR As a result the closed loop power control system will respond by transmitting a series of power up commands until the desired SNR is achieved But the mobile sets a the fringe of the cell are already transmitting at the extreme range so their call will be dropped if not handed off to the neighboring cell To hand it off the transmitted power of the BTS is reduced shrinking the cell and moving the hand off boundary closer When the interference is decreased, the mobiles will automatically be commanded to reduce power to the normal level This process is called cell breathing I.e. when the interference increases the cell size shrinks and when the interference decreases the cell comes back to its original position
Another benefit of power controlling feature is borrowing neighbor cell capacity This happens when a cell gets heavily loaded, in which the power control system command its mobiles to increase the power, this results in increased interference in the neighboring cells and deemphasized interference received from neighboring cells But since it is assumed that the heavily loaded cell is surrounded by light loaded cell therefore the added interference could be tolerated
At each BTS, the noise comes from two primary sources, thermal noise and mutual interference The BTS power control system adjust each mobile transmitted power so that the desired SNR is obtained As users are added, the interference to all the users increases, and to maintain the desired SNR, the mobile power must be increased slightly When the limit reaches, the mobiles at the fringe must handover to neighbor cell in order to accommodate the new users
Another advantage of power control system is that the average time taken by the mobile set battery to drain out is much more longer since mobiles do not have to transmit high power most of the time Another capability of power control system is the use of adaptive SNR threshold instead of using fixed SNR threshold at a constant value This allows the system to vary SNR according to loading and link quality It is also seen that the threshold SNR required by stationary users is less than that required by moving users This allows to balance the GoS while maximizing the capacity
Voice Activity Detection in CDMA Helps Increasing the Capacity How? Let us see!!!!!
In CDMA it is possible to reduce the transmission rate when there is no speech, which reduces the interference to other users and since interference directly determines the capacity, therefore capacity can be increased by the reduction in transmission rate
Such a reduction also helps to reduce the average mobile station transmit power
Problems in CDMA
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In mobile radio environment, some users may be located near the BTS, other may be located far away The propagation path loss for each user will be different If all mobiles transmitted at the same power level, signals received by the base station from mobiles further away would be weaker than those signals received from mobiles which were closer to the cell because of the difference in path losses As a result the BTS will only be able to demodulate signals from the closest mobiles The signals from distant mobiles will be over powered and thus not demodulated This issue reduces the capacity of a CDMA system
2-Path Loss
The greater the distance between the BTS and a mobile, the weaker the received signal
Multi-path fading (Rayleigh fading) is the result of of a vector sum of multiple signals of different amplitudes This results in attenuated signal at the receiver CDMA is much more robust than the analog technologies in the presence of multi-path but it does affect capacity The multi-path fading increases the required average SNR In reverse link, the power control scheme used mitigate the effect of fading but at only low speed At high speed it still have some effect
Multipaths are similar to echoes Transmitted signals may take a direct path to the mobile (the shortest distance) The signal may also bounce off objects before arriving at the receiving Antenna The bouncing signals travel a longer distance before arriving at the receiver This distance has a time delay when compared to other received signals There will be several signals at the receiver with different time delays Each signal carries the same information and is referred to as a multipath
Multi-path Fading
Fading occurs when more than two signals from the same transmitter are received due to multi-path Signals sent over the air can take a direct path to the mobile, bounce off objects, and arrive at the mobiles antenna at different times These different paths are referred to as multi-paths Fading occurs when two or more signals from the same transmitter are received due to multi-path Each signal arrives with a slight time delay causing a cancellation of other signals and may cause the call to drop
Multi-path Fading
The signal arrives at the receiver after traveling directly between antennas and also being reflected from building, hills, etc. When such multiple signals arrive at the receiver antenna, the RF phase difference between the signals can be such that the signals may cancel at one moment and be enhanced the next As the mobile subscriber is moving so it is possible that the primary signal (reaching directly from MS to BTS) and the secondary signal (reaching BTS after reflection) may arrive out of phase, this results in fading and is called multi-path fading Multi-path fading effects more on fast moving users than stationary one Multi-path fading in the downlink is not necessarily the same because uplink and downlink are separated by 45Mhz, secondly mobile users is in mobility therefore the concept of space diversity is applicable thus reducing fading In digital cellular system like CDMA multi-path is not very much severe since every multi-path signal is independently received and processed by the demodulator but still multi-path fading is not completely eliminated in CDMA, there left some multi-path signals that cannot be independently processed by demodulator and result in fading behavior
There are 3 ways to eliminate fading: Time Diversity: obtained through error detection and correction coding at the receiver Frequency Diversity: obtained by spreading the signal over a wider band of 1.25MHz Space Diversity: obtained by 3 ways, multiple receiver antennas (usually 2) on a cell site, simultaneous links from the MS to two or more cell sites, rake receiver allowing signals arriving with different propagation delays to be received separately and combined
Note: The concept of space diversity says that if a signal detected by an antenna is not strong enough then the same signal can be detected properly if another antenna is used which is slight displaced in polarity or position from the first one
One of the main advantages of CDMA systems is their ability to use signals that arrive in the receivers with different time delays This phenomenon is called multi-path
FDMA (analog cellular) and TDMA, which are narrow band systems, cannot discriminate between multi-paths
Due to its wide bandwidth and rake receivers, CDMA uses the multi-path signals and combines them to make an even stronger signal at the receivers
Multi-path Fading
4-Shadowing
Shadowing occurs when the signal from the transmitter is blocked by buildings or terrain When this occurs the only usable signal is a multi-path signal that will be significantly weaker
CDMA has a frequency reuse of one Each BTS in the network uses the same frequency eliminating the need for frequency planning
CDMA Codes
Orthogonal (Walsh) codes Pseudorandom noise (PN) codes
Walsh Codes
All codes in CDMA are orthogonal to each other in order to differentiate users from one an other
The orthogonal sequences used in forward CDMA link are Walsh codes to separate users In any given sector, each Forward Channel is assigned a distinct Walsh code 64 Walsh codes available for cdmaOne IS-95 128 Walsh codes available for CDMA 2000 1X rate 256 Walsh codes available for CDMA 2000 3X rate (WCDMA)
Walsh code 0 reserved for Pilot Channel Walsh codes 1 through 7 reserved for Paging Channel Walsh code 32 reserved for Sync Channel Remaining Walsh codes assigned to Traffic Channels as required
PN Codes
Pseudorandom noise (PN) codes on reverse link to channelize users The chip rate of the PN spreading sequence is chosen so that the resulting bandwidth is about 1.25Mhz
Eb/No determines the ratio of energy per bit to the power spectral noise density Because of wide channel BW employed in CDMA, it is possible to use extremely powerful, high redundancy error correction coding technique In narrow band digital modulation techniques, less powerful low redundancy error correction coding technique is used to conserve channel BW The lower Eb/No increases cell radius of coverage, increases capacity and decreases transmitter output power requirements
3G Wireless Technologies
CDMA 2000 1X 1X EV DO 1X EV DV WCDMA
What is 3G?
The ITU has defined requirements for third-generation mobile systems, these systems will provide access by means of one or more radio links to a wide range of telecommunication services supported by the fixed and mobile telecommunications networks, and to other services The ITU defines IMT 2000 which contains a framework for next-generation wireless and mobile network. It contains principles and protocols that are require to be satisfied for any technology to claim itself a 3G technology IMT-2000 specifies that 3G systems should provide a wider range of services including voice and data services According to that, 3G will provide data services with a minimum of 144 kbps in vehicular environments, 384 kbps in outdoor to indoor environments, and 2 Mbps in indoor and pico cell environments Ultimately, 3G in wireless communications will offer a multitude of features, such as high speed, enhanced multimedia capabilities, fixed and mobile wireless CDMA is the foundation for 3G services: the two dominant IMT-2000 standards, CDMA2000 and WCDMA, are based on CDMA
3G Evolution
Why 3G?
The increasing demand for wireless services as many systems are running out of capacity The desire for higher quality voice services
The desire to introduce higher data rates (as high as 2 Mbps) and multimedia services into wireless networks
The desire to provide integrated services The world's first 3G (CDMA2000 1X) commercial system was launched by SK Telecom (Korea) in October 2000
IS 95 A/B
IS-95 A is 2G digital cellular service capable of providing data at a speed of 14.4 kbps in addition to voice IS-95 B is 2.5 G digital cellular technology capable of providing data throughput of 64kbps in addition to voice
CDMA 2000
CDMA2000 is an improvement on IS-95 CDMA2000 represents a family of technologies that includes CDMA2000 1X and CDMA2000 1xEV CDMA2000 represents a family of ITU-approved, IMT-2000 (3G) standards and includes CDMA2000 1X and CDMA2000 1xEV technologies They deliver increased network capacity to meet growing demand for wireless services and high-speed data services cdma2000 optimized for integrated voice and medium data rates It provides a significant improvement in voice capacity and expanded data capability, and is backward-compatible with IS-95 handsets
CDMA 2000
The first 3G CDMA air interface CDMA2000 1X RTT, implies that a single 1.25MHz radio channel is used i.e. 1X means one times the original cdmaOne channel bandwidth CDMA2000 1X supports instantaneous data rate of up to 307kbps for a user in packet mode and yields typical throughput rates of up to 144kbps per user, depending on the number of users, the velocity of a user and propagation conditions Cdma2000 can support twice as many voice users as the 2G CDMA because of 128 available Walsh codes (cdmaOne has only 64 Walsh codes) and can provide twice the standby time for the battery of MS As a result, CDMA2000 is a very efficient and robust technology Supporting both voice and data in various spectrum bands (450MHz, 1900MHz) including the new IMT-2000 allocations (2100 MHz)
CDMA 2000
Is backward-compatible with IS-95 IS-95 and CDMA2000 equipped mobiles can operate on the same frequency assignment
Existing IS-95 networks can be converted to CDMA2000 without impact to existing IS-95 mobiles
Thus a network that is converted to CDMA2000 from IS-95 will support users with IS-95 handsets A motivating factor for migration to CDMA2000-enabled handsets is that it permits use of enhanced data service and increases the voice capacity of the network
3G is the term used to describe next generation mobile services which provide better quality voice and high-speed Internet and multimedia service While there are many interpretations of what 3G represents, the only definition accepted universally is the one published by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) ITU, working with industry bodies from around the world, defines and approves technical requirements and standards as well as the use of spectrum for 3G systems under the IMT-2000 (International Telecommunication Union-2000) program The ITU requires that IMT-2000 (3G) networks, among other capabilities, deliver improved system capacity and spectrum efficiency over the 2G systems and support data services at minimum transmission rates of 144 kbps in mobile (outdoor) and 2 Mbps in fixed (indoor) environments Based on these requirements, in 1999 ITU approved five radio interfaces for IMT2000 standards CDMA2000 is one of those five standards
cdma2000 is a family of technology standards covering 3G wireless networks and is intended for both voice and data communication cdma2000 has been divided into two phases The capabilities of the first phase are defined as cdma2000 1x cdma2000 1x is similar to its 2G predecessor cdmaOne and introduces 144kbps packet data in a mobile environment The second phase is known as CDMA 2000 1X EV DO which is optimized only for high speed data and 1X EV DV which is optimized both for voice and high speed data
3G CDMA 2000
The ITU defines a 3G network as one that delivers, among other capabilities, improved system capacity and spectrum efficiency versus 2G systems It supports data services at transmission rates of at least 144 Kbps in mobile (moving) environments and at least 2 Mbps in fixed (indoor) environments The cdma2000 architecture meets these objectives and includes several implementations that an operator can select to best serve a based on competitive concerns, existing infrastructures, cost, and other variables Among these implementations are cdma2000 1X and cdma2000 1xEV xx cdma2000 1X doubles the voice capacity of cdmaOne networks, delivering peak data rates of 307 Kbps per subscriber in a mobile environment
3G CDMA
One of the sets of specifications mentioned in by ITUs IMT 2000 is known as cdma2000 cdma2000 is one set of standards for 3G mobile wireless technology, which gives access to an IP-based network (PDSN) via a wireless connection Based on the cdma2000 specifications, two different methods for data delivery - Simple IP and Mobile IP These methods have been defined to connect the user to an IP network; Mobile IP enables the user to maintain a session even when moving between different Radio Networks, whereas Simple IP does not cdma2000 supports both Simple IP and Mobile IP, and enables the delivery of a host of IP services in the wireless environment
The Packet Data Serving Node (PDSN) is a central part of a cdma2000 1x network The PDSN establishes, maintains, and terminates PPP (Point to Point Protocol) sessions from the Mobile Station It also provides IP addresses for Simple IP operations and routes packets onto the IP network AAA Servers perform the Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting functions
Simple IP
Simple IP is deployed for service in which the mobile user is assigned a dynamic IP address from the local PDSN and provided IP routing service by a service provider network The mobile user can retain its IP address as long as it is served by a RN which has connectivity to the address assigning PDSN However, there is no IP address mobility beyond this PDSN In Simple IP, the Mobile Station initially establishes radio connection and a PPP connection to the PDSN During the establishment of a logical connection, the Mobile Station receives an IP address from the PDSN After the connection is established it appears as if the Mobile Station is always on, but, in contrast to circuitswitched networks, the Mobile Station only uses (occupies) resources in the radio network and the IP network when packets are sent The IP address assigned may be private to that PDSN and exists as part of its network space The PDSN handles normal IP routing to the hosts connected to the IP network The Mobile Station retains its IP address as long as it is connected to the same PDSN, making it possible to change cell without disconnecting the on-going PPP sessions
Mobile IP
Mobile IP provides IP routing service to a public IP network The mobile user is able to use either a static IP address or dynamically assigned IP address belonging to its home IP network HA Regardless of whether the mobile is assigned a static or dynamic IP address, it should have a static and persistent HA address to allow seamless handoff between RNs that are connected to separate PDSNs While Mobile IP is a general way to provide mobility, it is intended for use in conjunction with a wireless network When Mobile IP is used in cdma2000 1x networks, the PDSN acts as a Foreign Agent and handles the interface with the Mobile Stations Home Agent The benefits and value of Mobile IP include the ability to maintain an existing session and IP address no matter the location of the Mobile Station
The Mobile Station is never forced to reinitiate a session, and can maintain access to its enterprise intranet
Service providers that offer seamless coverage areas enhance these mobile capabilities If the Mobile Station physically moves to another geographical location outside of the range of the home PDSN, Mobile IP enables the user to keep the same IP address and maintain an on-going session
A CDMA2000 multi-carrier system uses N carriers on the forward link and one carrier on the on the reverse link Current cdma2000 standards specify Spreading Rate 1 and Spreading Rate 3 Spreading Rate 1 also known as 1X resembles cdmaOne in that both the forward and reverse link channels occupy 1.25 MHz Spreading Rate 3, also known as 3X, uses three 1.25 MHz forward link channels but a single 3.75 MHz wide reverse link channel So 1X basically determines the spreading rates: 1x using a spreading rate of 1.2288 Mcps 3x using a spreading rate of 3 x 1.2288 Mcps or 3.6864 Mcps
With 1 Carrier in 1X
Spreading Rate 1
Spreading Rate 3
With 3 Carriers in 1X
Multi Carrier MC 1X
Multi Carrier MC 3X
Higher data rates and increased spectrum efficiency using a 1.25 MHz carrier The unique features, benefits, and performance of CDMA2000 make it an excellent technology for high-voice capacity and high-speed packet data Higher capacity, that is, more users per MHz Additional Walsh codes to support Wireless Local Loop (WLL) applications in addition to mobility systems The fact that CDMA2000 1X has the ability to support both voice and data services on the same carrier makes it cost effective for wireless operators New variable rate vocoder design for improved voice quality and capacity
CDMA2000 can be deployed in all cellular and PCS spectrum including 450 MHz, 800 MHz, 900 MHz, 1700 MHz, 1800 MHz, 1900 MHz and 2100 MHz bands
RUIM in CDMA2000
A new feature for cdma2000 terminals is the R-UIM = Removable User Identity Module The IMT-2000 term for GSM Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) R-UIM contains subscription information (identity, addresses, phone book, feature specific information, and supplementary services)
CDMA Family
CDMA 1x is the first commercial available 3G IMT-2000 standard CDMA2000 1X can double the voice capacity of cdmaOne networks and delivers peak packet data speeds of 307 kbps in mobile environments Capable of up to 307 kbps peak data rate on a 1x (1.25 MHz) carrier Doubles capacity for voice communications Offers 50% longer stand-by times
What is 1X EV DO?
CDMA2000 1xEV-DO , is a spectrally efficient solution optimized for high-speed wireless Internet access 1X = Spreading rate of 1.2288 Mcps EV = EVolution DO = Data Optimized (no voice traffic) 1xEV-DO systems have their own dedicated RF channel (frequency assignment) Peak data rate of 2.4 Mbps peak data rates on the forward link Peak data rate of 153 kbps (per user) on the reverse link
What is 1X EV DO?
1X EV DO represents a wireless alternative to cable modems and DSL CDMA2000 1xEV-DO delivers peak data speeds of 2.4Mbps and supports applications such as MP3 transfers and video conferencing Terminals operate on their own dedicated carriers, separate from cdmaOne or cdma2000 carriers
1X EV DO and 1X RTT dual-mode operation is accomplished by the dual-mode terminal periodically monitoring traffic on the cdma2000 frequency 1X EV DO handsets are expensive than 1X RTT
1X EV DO
1xEV-DO has been designed to have the same 1.25 MHz bandwidth, coverage area, and spectral characteristics as 1x RTT This permits 1xEV-DO to be deployed on its own dedicated frequency assignment alongside 1x RTT In addition, no changes are required to existing 1x RTT or cdmaOne network plans and the same cell sites, towers, and antennas can be used with minimum addition of few cards
CDMA 2000 1X EV DV
DV Data and Voice CDMA2000 1xEV-DV provides integrated voice and simultaneous high-speed packet data multimedia services at speeds of up to 3.09 Mbps
1xEV-DO and 1xEV-DV are both backward compatible with CDMA2000 1X and cdmaOne
What is WCDMA?
W-CDMA has a channel spacing of 5 MHz and a chip rate of 3.84 MHz
It is designed to be deployed under a GSM/GPRS network It has two modes: Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) mode Time Division Duplex (TDD) mode FDD mode is like cdma2000 in which separate channels are used for forward and reverse links In TDD mode, a channel consists of 5 MHz and is time-shared between the forward and reverse directions W-CDMA supports multiplexing services with different Quality of Service (QOS) such as voice, packet data, and video It also supports variable data rates up to 2 Mbps
Conclusion
CDMA infrastructure is widespread and sure to form the basis for 3rd Generation networks It is considered standard protocol for 3G Networks cdma2000 and other 3G technologies bring telecommunications into the packet-switched domain, adding a host of new services and network complexities in the process