Type of Structures and Loadings

2
Outline
Introduction
Classification of Structures
Loads
Structural Design
3
1-1 Introduction
Structures refer to a system of connected
parts used to support a load
Factors to consider
Safety
Esthetics
Serviceability
Economic & environmental constraints

4
1-2 Classification of Structures
Structural elements
Tie rods
Beams
Columns
Types of structures
Trusses
Cables & Arches
Surface Structures
5
1-3 Loads
Loads

Structural forms

Elements carrying primary loads

Various supporting members

Foundation
6
1-3 Loads
Design loading for a structure is often
specified in codes
General building codes
Design codes
Table 1.1 lists some of the important codes
used in practice
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1-3 Loads
Table 1.1
8
1-3 Loads
Types of load
Dead loads
Weights of various structural members
Weights of any objects that are permanently attached
to the structure
The densities of typical building materials are listed in
Table 1.2 & 1.3
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1-3 Loads
Table 1.2 & 1.3
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Example 1.1 Question
The floor beam in Fig 1.8 is used to
support the 1.83m width of
lightweight plain concrete slab
having a thickness of 102mm
The slab serves as a portion of the
ceiling for the floor below & its
bottom coated with plaster
A 2.44m high, 305mm thick
lightweight solid concrete block
wall is directly over the top flange
of the beam
Determine the loading on the
beam measured per m length of
the beam
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1-3 Live Loads
Varies in magnitude & location
Building loads
12
Depends on the purpose for which the building is
designed
These loadings are generally tabulated in
local, state or national code
A sample is shown in Table 1-4
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1-3 Live Loads - Table
Table 1-4
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1-3 Live Loads

Building Loads
Uniform, concentrated loads
For buildings having very large floor areas, many
codes allow a reduction in the uniform live load
for a floor as it is unlikely the prescribed live
load will occur simultaneously
ASCE 7-02 allows a reduction of live load on a
member having an influence area (K
LL
A
T
) of 37.2
m
2
or more
15
1-3 Live Loads
Building Loads
2
2
2
m in area tributary
4 column interior For factor. element load live
member by the supported area of load/m live design unreduced
member by the supported area of load/m live design reduced
where
1.1 eqn units) (SI
57 . 4
25 . 0
=
= =
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
T
LL LL
o
T LL
o
A
K K
L
L
A K
L L
16
1-3 Live Loads

Building Loads
roof. or garage assembly, public for used structures for or
/ 79 . 4 loads for allowed is reduction No
floor one than more supporting members for 4 . 0
floor one supporting members for 5 . 0
2
m kN
L L
L L
o
o
>
>
>
17
Example 1.3
Live Loads Computation for Design
A 2-storey office building has
interior columns that are spaced
6.71m apart in two perpendicular
directions (see Fig 1.9)
If the (flat) roof loading is
0.96kN/m2, determine the
reduced live load supported by a
typical interior column located at
ground level
The Problem/Question
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1-3 Loads
Wind loads
Kinetic energy of the wind is converted into potential
energy of pressure when structures block the flow of
wind
Effects of wind depends on density & flow of air, angle
of incidence, shape & stiffness of the structure &
roughness of surface
For design, wind loadings can be treated as static or
dynamic approach

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1-3 Loads
Wind loads
For static approach

1 alone, acting For wind
loads. of n combinatio to subjected is structure the only when used is It
wind. the of direction for the accounts t factor tha a
1 ground flat For s. escarpment % hills to due increases speed for wind accounts t factor tha a
1.5. Table See
terrain. ground upon the depends and height of function A t. coefficien exposure pressure velocity the
occupancy. building the of nature upon the depends t factor tha importance the
map. wind a from obtained are Values
period. recurrence 50year a during ground the above 10m measured wind of gust 3s a of m/s in velocity
where
2 1. eqn )
2
/ (
2
613 . 0
=
=
= =
=
=
=
=
d
K
d
K
zt
K
zt
K
z
K
I
V
m N I V
d
K
zt
K
z
K
z
q
20
1-3 Loads
Wind loads
Once q
z
is obtained, the design pressure can be
obtained from a list of relevant eqns


1.3 eqn ) (
pi h p
GC q qGC p =
21
1-3 Loads
Wind loads

18 . 0 building, enclosed fully For
building. in the openings of type
upon the depends t which coefficien pressure internal the
surface. the from away acting pressure indicate values Negative
1.13). (Fig table a from determine t coefficien pressure roof or wall
0.85 G structure, rigid For
exposure. on depending factor, effect gust - wind a
roof the of height mean , h z where wall leeward for the
ground the above z height at wall windward for the
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
pi
pi
p
h
z
GC
GC
C
G
q
q q
22
1-3 Loads
Wind loads
Applications of eqn 1.3 will involve calculations of wind
pressures from each side of the building with due
considerations for the possibility of either positive or
negative pressures acting on the buildings interior
For high-rise building or those having as shape or
location that makes them wind sensitive, it is
recommended that a dynamic approach is used
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1-3 Loads
Earthquake loads
Earthquake produce loadings through its interaction
with the ground & its response characteristics
Their magnitude depends on amount & type of ground
accel, mass & stiffness of structure
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1-3 Loads
Earthquake loads
To illustrate, consider Fig 1.16
This model may represent a single-story building
The top block is the lumped mass of the roof
The middle block is the lumped stiffness of all the
buildings columns
During earthquake, the ground vibrates both
horizontally & vertically
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1-3 Loads
Earthquake loads
Horizontal accel -> shear forces in the column
If the column is stiff & the block has a small mass, the
period of vibration of the block will be short, the block
will accel with the same motion as the ground &
undergo slight relative displacements
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1-3 Loads
Earthquake loads
If the column is very flexible & the block has a large
mass, induced motion will cause small accelerations of
the block & large relative
displacement
Fig 1.16
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1-3 Loads
Earthquake loads
The effects of a structures response can be determined
& represented as an earthquake response spectrum
For small structure, static analysis is satisfactory


/ I R
S
C
DS
s
=
28
1-3 Loads
Earthquake loads



building the of
use on the depends t factor tha importance
structure the of ductility upon the
depends t factor tha on modificati response
vibration of
periods short for accel response spectral
=
=
=
I
R
S
DS
29
1-3 Loads
Hydrostatic & Soil Pressure
The pressure developed by these loadings when the
structures are used to retain water or soil or granular
materials
E.g. tanks, dams, ships, bulkheads & retaining walls
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1-3 Loads
Other natural loads
Effect of blast
Temperature changes
Differential settlement of foundation
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1-4 Structural Design
Material uncertainties occur due to
variability in material properties
residual stress in materials
intended measurements being different from
fabricated sizes
material corrosion or decay


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1-4 Structural Design
Many types of loads discussed previously can
occur simultaneously on a structure
However, it is unlikely that the max of all these
loads will occur at the same time
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1-4 Structural Design
In working-stress design, the computed elastic
stress in the material must not exceed the
allowable stress along with the following
typical load combinations as specified by the
ASCE 7-02 Standard
Dead load
0.6 (dead load) + wind load
0.6 (dead load) + 0.7(earthquake load)

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1-4 Structural Design
Ultimate strength design is based on designing
the ultimate strength of critical sections
This method uses load factors to the loads or
combination of loads
1.4 (Dead load)
1.2 (dead load) + 1.6 (live load) + 0.5 (snow load)
1.2 (dead load) + 1.5(earthquake load)+ 0.5 (live load)