Purpose of Theodolite Traversing

To provide control points for chain surveying, plane tabling and

photogrammetric survey in flat country

To fix the alignment of roads, canals, rivers, boundaries, etc. when better
accuracy is required as compared to plane tabling

To ascertain the coordinates of boundary pillars in numerical terms that can
be preserved for future reference such as cantonment boundary pillars, forest
boundary pillars, international boundary pillars, etc. In case the pillars get
disturbed, their positions can be relaid with the help of their co-ordinates.

Principle of Theodolite Survey
Traverse Station
Station should be as minimum as possible.
Stable earths surface. Slope areas, muddy and too many plants should be
avoided.
Stations can be seen clearly between each other.




Two types of traverse that are commonly used:
Traversing by interior angles
Traversing by bearings
Method of Measuring Traverse Angles
Traversing by Interior Angles
To measure interior angle, traversing is carried out in one direction from one
station to another station. They may be read either clockwise or counter-
clockwise as the survey progresses. It is good practice, however, to measure all
angles clockwise.

Traversing by Bearings
Topographic surveys are often run by bearings, a process that permits readings
of all lines directly, thus eliminating the need to calculate them. Bearings are
measured clockwise from the north end of the north point through the angle
points. The theodolite is oriented at each set up by sighting to the previous
station with back bearing on the circle.


Co-ordinates

Normally, plane rectangular co-ordinates are used to identify the stations
on a traverse. A specific point is defined by its perpendicular distances from
each of two co-ordinate axes which are based on north-south and east-west
directions.

The former is the reference axis and it can be:
a) True north;
b) Magnetic north;
c) National Grid north; and
d) A chosen arbitrary direction, which could be one of the traverse lines if
so wished.

The intersection of the axis given the origin for the survey and usually it is
to the south and west to ensure that all points have positive co-ordinates.
Easting/northing

The co-ordinates given by the perpendicular distances from the two main are
termed:
X Y
N N N = A
eastings (distance from the north-south axis)
northings (distance from the east-west axis)

as indicated in Fig.3.2 for the points X and Y. Relative positions are given by
and
X Y
E E E = A co-ordinates differences
Fig. 3.2
Bearings

The position of a point may also be referenced by stating length XY and
bearing of line XY, and these are referred to as polar co-ordinates. The
bearing is termed the whole circle bearing (WCB) of XY. It is measured
clockwise from 0 to 360 at X between the north-south reference direction
and the direction of Y from X. In Fig.3.3 the whole circle bearing of YZ is ,
and the whole circle bearing of ZY is ( 180).
Similarly for YX in Fig.3.2 the bearing is ( + 180) and, in general
of line 1 2 = bearing of line 2 1 180, 1 and 2 being points within the
system.
Fig. 3.3
3.1 Calculation of bearings

a) Briefly explain the following terms

(i) True north
(ii) Magnetic north
(iii)Whole circle bearings (WCB)

b) The included angles gives in Table 3.1 are recorded at stations forming a
closed traverse survey around the perimeter of a field.
Station Included angle
A
B
C
D
E
F
122 42 20
87 16 40
133 08 20
125 55 20
92 47 40
158 06 40
Determine the amount of angular error in the
survey and adjust the values of the included
angles.
If the whole circle bearing of the line
BC is 45 calculate the whole circle bearings of
the traverse lines and the corresponding values
in the centesimal system.
[Salford]
Table 3.1
True north refers to the north geographical pole. The true or geographical
meridian through a point is the trace of the plane through the north and south
poles and the point in question.

Magnetic north does not coincide with geographical north; the magnetic
meridian is the direction revealed by a freely floating magnetic needle. The
angle between it and the true meridian is termed declination.

The whole circle bearing of a line has been defined previously as the
angle, lying between 0 and 360, between the direction of north and the
direction of the line, measured clockwise.
Solution. Determine the angular error and apply corrections.
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.4 shows the traverse survey, the orientation of line BC being
45 from the meridian. This form of traverse is known as a closed-loop traverse
since it begins and ends at the same point. The sum of the internal angles of a
polygon is (2n 4)*90 right angles, where n is the number of angles.
.
Thus the sum of the six angles of this example must be eight right
angles, or 720 00 00, whereas by measurement it is 719 57 00 (Table
3.2). The total error is therefore 3 00 or 180, and hence a total correction
of +180 has to be applied. Note that this is of some magnitude and implies a
relatively low order of work, for example fourth order implies an error of the
N 60
" 147 6 60 =
sec, i.e.
The corrections can be applied equally to each angle on the assumption
that conditions were constant at the time of measurement and that the angle
had been measured with the same accuracy. Hence a correction of (+180/6)
= +30 is given to each angle in this example. Next we calculate whole
circle bearings.
It is usual to proceed in an anti-clockwise manner round the traverse
when internal angles have been measured. To determine the whole circle
bearing of the line to the forward station it is necessary to add the whole circle
bearing of the previous line, i.e. that from the back station, to the internal angle
at the station, and then to add or deduct 180 depending upon whether that sum
is less or greater than 180. For instance, at A we required the whole circle
bearing of AF knowing that of BA.
Angle Observed value Correction Adjusted value
A
B
C
D
E
F
122 42 20
87 16 40
133 08 20
125 55 20
92 47 40
158 06 40
+ 30
+ 30
+ 30
+ 30
+ 30
+ 30
122 42 50
87 17 10
133 08 50
125 55 50
92 48 10
158 07 10
Total 719 57 00 Total 720 00 00
Table 3.2

180
A BA
| + u =
In this example we are given the bearing of BC but to move round the
traverse in the anti-clockwise direction B, A, F, E, D, C, B we need the
bearing of CB instead.
Now whole circle bearing of BC = 45
Therefore whole circle bearing of CB = 45 + 180
= 225.
B A S A B N
1 BA
. .
= u =
Therefore from Fig. 3.5, WCB of AF
Since
Fig. 3.5
We can now proceed, using the quoted rule, to determine the whole circle
bearing of the six traverse lines as follows.
gon 0216 . 59
0031 . 0
3240
1
10
1296 . 0
54
1
7
8889 . 58
9
10
53
=
=
=
Calculate centesimal values.
In the centesimal system the major graduations of the instrument range
from zero to 400 gon, as against zero to 360 in the sexagesimal system.
Subdivision in the centesimal system is carried out in steps of ten and readings
may be made to 0.0001 gon. It will be evident that:
Hence in the case of line FE, 53 07 10 in the centesimal system is equivalent
to
Similar calculations are used to complete table 3.3.
gon
54
1
1 minute is equivalent to
gon
3240
1
1 second is equivalent to
gon
9
10
1 degree is equivalent to
Table 3.3

Line
Whole circle bearing
Sexagesimal
system
Centesimal
system
AF
FE
ED
DC
CB
BA
75 00 00
53 07 10
325 55 20
271 51 10
225 00 00
132 17 10
83.3333 gon
59.0216 gon
362.1358 gon
302.0586 gon
250.0000 gon
146.9846 gon
3.2 Correcting a traverse by Bowditchs
method
A survey was carried out on a closed loop traverse with six sides. With the traverse
labelled anti-clockwise as shown in Figure 3.6 the data in Table 3.4 were obtained.
Station Internal angle Length
A
B
C
D
E
F
130 18 45
110 18 23
99 32 35
116 18 2
119 46 7
143 46 20
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
FA
14.248
85.771
77.318
28.222
53.099
65.914
Table 3.4
Figure 3.6
The co-ordinates of point A are 1000 mE, 1000 mN and the whole circle
bearing of the line AF is 166 45 52.

After adjustment by Bowditchs method what are the co-ordinates of the
other five traverse stations?
[Salford/CIOB]
Solution. The first stage in the process is to determine the angular
error and apply corrections as discussed in Example 3.1.
Table 3.5 shows the tabulated angular data which sums to 7200012,
( )

90 4 n 2 =
Thus, assuming that the angles have been measured with equal
accuracy, a correction of 2 should be applied to each as shown in Table 3.5.
expected closure
error

720 =

720 " 12 ' 00 720 =
" 12 + =
Angle Observed value Correction Adjusted value
A
B
C
D
E
F
130 18 45
110 18 23
99 32 35
116 18 2
119 46 7
143 46 20
2
2
2
2
2
2
130 18 43
110 18 21
99 32 33
116 18 0
119 46 5
143 46 18
7200012 7200000
Table 3.5
The next stage is to calculate the whole circle bearings. In Example 3.1
a method of calculating whole circle bearings was presented adding or
subtracting 180 to the bearing of the back station plus the internal angle at the
station.
The same set of bearing can be obtained by approaching the problem
differently. The reader is advised to try both methods and adopt the one that is
found to be easiest; the two methods cannot be mixed in any one calculation.
( )

360 WCB 0 range in lie to 180 WCB WCB
BA AB BA
< < =
( )
etc 180 WCB WCB
360 than greater if 360 subtract B WCB WCB
BC CB
BA BC

=
+ =


Figure 3.7
Consider Fig. 3.7
Readers can consider themselves to be at each of the stations in turn logically
proceeding around the traverse in an anti-clockwise direction.

The next stage is to determine the easting and northing differences. In the
introduction it was pointed out that:
a) easting difference E = E
Y
E
X

b) northing difference N = N
Y
N
X

for points X and Y, which can be the stations at each end of a line as in Fig.
3.8.

Figure 3.8
It will be seen that,
E = lXY sin (WCB)
and N = lXY cos (WCB).

The signs of E and N automatically
follow the trigonometrical terms. Since the
whole circle bearing lies between 180 and
270 both sin (WCB) and cos (WCB) are
negative. This causes N and E to be
negative in respect of the positive
directions of N and E in Fig. 3.8.
The resultant easting differences and northing differences can now be computed
for the traverse lines, as in Table 3.6.

Line WCB Length
(m)
E
(m)
N
(m)
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
FA
297 04 35
227 22 56
146 55 29
83 13 29
22 59 34
346 45 52
14.248
85.771
77.318
28.222
53.099
65.914
12.686
63.118
42.196
28.025
20.741
15.091
6.485
58.076
64.789
3.330
48.880
64.163
Totals 324.572 + 0.067 0.007
Table 3.6
Next, the closing error is determined. The algebraic sums of the easting
differences and northing differences should be zero because the traverse starts
and ends at A, but in fact we have total errors in so far as this traverse is
concerned of
E = 0.067 m
and N = 0.007 m
Closing error =
(E
2
+ N
2
)
=
(0.067
2
+ 0.007
2
)
= 0.067 m
Expressed fractionally in terms of the total length of the traverse the linear error
is 0.067 m in 324.572 m or 1 in 4844. This is close to third-order accuracy of 1
in 5000.
The error in easting and northing distances should now be corrected.
There are a number of methods of carrying out this task; Bowditchs method is
commonly adopted in civil engineering surveys since it has some theoretical
background and relatively simple to apply. The method assumes that the error in
the bearing of a line caused by inaccurate angular measurement produces a
displacement at one end of a line (C) relative to the other end (B) which is equal
and perpendicular to the displacement along that line due to an error in linear
measurement, which is taken to the proportional to
. L
BC
Figure 3.9 shows that the method causes C to be displace to C, and consequently
the bearing of BC changes.
. L
BC
Figure 3.9
For individual lines Bowditchs method states:

traverse of lenght total
BC line of lenght dN
= correction to northing difference N
BC

traverse of lenght total
BC line of lenght dE
=
correction to easting difference E
BC
in which dE and dN are total corrections required for the easting differences and
northing differences, respectively.
In this example dE = 0.067 m and dN = + 0.07 m. Hence the corrections
for line BC are:


correction to easting difference
572 . 324
771 . 85
067 . 0 = m 018 . 0 =
correction to northing difference
572 . 324
771 . 85
007 . 0 + =
m 002 . 0 + =
Note also that in Fig. 3.9
the change in bearing of the line
BC
BC 1
N to correction
E to correction
tan
A
A
=

dN
dE
tan
1
=
This is the bearing of the closing error and the correction in bearing applies
throughout the traverse for all lines.
The corrections can be tabulated as in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7
Line E Correcti
on
to E
Corrected
E
N Correction
to N
Corrected
N
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
FA
12.686
63.118
42.196
28.025
20.741
15.091
0.003
0.018
0.016
0.006
0.011
0.013
12.689
63.136
42.180
28.019
20.730
15.104
6.485
58.076
64.789
3.330
48.880
64.163
+ 0.000
+ 0.002
+ 0.002
+ 0.001
+ 0.001
+ 0.001
6.485
58.074
64.787
3.331
48.881
64.164
Totals 0.067 0.067 0.0 0.007 + 0.007 0.0
The final stage is to determine the co-ordinates of the stations by applying the
corrected difference E and N to the previous station co-ordinates, i.e. for B

easting co-ordinates of B = easting co-ordinates of A + E
AB
northing co-ordinates of B = northing co-ordinates of A + N
AB

Hence we obtain the values given in Table 3.8.
Station Co-ordinates
E
(m)
N
(m)
A
(line AB)
B
(line BC)
C
(line CD)
D
(line DE)
E
(line EF)
F
(line FA)
A
1000.00
12.689
987.311
63.136
924.175
42.180
966.355
28.019
994.374
20.730
1015.104
15.104
1000.00
1000.00
6.485
1006.485
58.074
948.411
64.787
883.624
3.331
886.955
48.881
935.836
64.164
1000.00
Table 3.8
The following computer program will correct a closed-loop traverse by
Bowditchs method. Stations must be numbered clockwise around the traverse,
the co-ordinates of point 1 being fixed and the whole circle bearing of the line
joining station 1 and station N must be known. The internal angles at the
stations should have been measured and the traverse lines must not cross.
Line 230 in the program compares the actual angular misclosure to the
allowable one and calculation stops if this is exceeded, this check can be
removed by deleting lines 230 250.
For readers with programmable calculators the DIM statement in line 20
has been set for a 10-sided traverse, minimum values are L(N). E(N+1),
N(N+1), A(N), B(N). The data is output in a table and lines 430, 500, 540 and
560 will need to be reformatted for machines with a limited display.


3.3 Correcting a traverse by the Transit rule
A closed-loop traverse survey ABCDEA, shown in Fig. 3.10, gave the
information in Table 3.9.

Line Length
(m)
Whole circle
bearing
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA
293.27
720.83
497.12
523.34
761.87
45 10 10
72 04 55
161 51 45
228 43 10
300 41 50
Table 3.9
Figure 3.10
Determine the closing error and hence, after adjustment by the Transit rule,
determine the co-ordinates of the traverse stations given that the co-ordinates of
A are 1200.00 mE, 1200.00 mN.
It may be assumed that the whole circle bearings do not need an adjustment.
Introduction. The previous examples covered the first stage in
traverse computation in that the measured angles were assessed for error, and
then duly corrected. This was then followed by the determination of the
whole circle bearings of the lines. This example allows us to follow the
remainder of the procedure applied to the Transit rule.

This method has to theoretical background, but it is such that if a
line has no easting difference it will not be given an easting correction. This
is not so with the Bowditch approach. The rule states
E
E dE
DE
A
A
=
N
N dN
DE
A
A
=
correction to E
DE

correction to N
DE


Solution. First calculate the values of E and N in exactly the same manner to
Example 3.2. The data are tabulated in Table 3.10.

Table 3.10

Line Length
(m)
WCB E
(m)
N
(m)
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA
293.27
720.83
497.12
523.34
761.87
45 10 10
72 04 55
161 51 45
228 43 10
300 41 50
+ 207.99
+ 685.87
+ 154.75
393.28
655.11
+ 206.76
+ 221.77
472.42
345.27
+ 388.94
Totals + 0.22 0.22
Sum 2097.00 1635.16

In the example E = 2097.00 m and dE = 0.22

N = 1635.16 m and dN = + 0.22.

also
Magnitudes of the differences are considered but the signs are ignored.
Thus for line DE we have
00 . 2097
28 . 393
22 . 0 =
04 . 0 =
correction to E
DE



Table 3.11
Line E Correction
to E
Corrected
E
N Correction
to N
Corrected
N
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA
+ 207.99
+ 685.87
+ 154.75
393.28
655.11
0.02
0.07
0.02
0.04
0.07
+ 207.97
+ 685.80
+ 154.73
393.32
655.18
+ 206.76
+ 221.77
+ 472.42
345.27
388.94
+ 0.03
+ 0.03
+ 0.06
+ 0.05
+ 0.05
+ 206.79
+ 221.80
+ 472.36
345.22
388.99
0.22

0.00

+ 0.22

0.00
16 . 1635
27 . 345
22 . 0 + =
. m 05 . 0 + =
correction to N
DE



For the complete traverse we obtain the values in Table 3.11.
To determine the co-ordinates of the stations we apply the corrected
differences E and N to the previous station co-ordinates in the same manner as
Example 3.2, and hence we obtain the values in Table 3.12.

Station Co-ordinates
E
(m)
N
(m)
A
(line AB)
B
(line BC)
C
(line CD)
D
(line DE)
E
(line EA)
A
1200.00
207.97
1407.97
685.80
2093.77
154.73
2248.50
393.32
1855.18
655.18
1200.00
1200.00
206.79
1406.79
221.80
1628.59
472.36
1156.23
345.22
811.01
+388.99
1200.00
Table 3.12
3.4 Vector misclosure of a traverse
A five-dided loop traverse (whose angles have an accepted misclosure) has been
computed giving the co-ordinate differences in Table 3.13 for each leg.
Leg E
(m)
N
(m)
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA
43.62
+ 70.45
+ 50.85
23.01
53.73
61.39
34.71
+ 48.10
+ 73.37
25.86
Table 3.13
i. Determine the easting, northing and vector misclosure of the traverse.
ii. The vector misclosure indicates a mistake of 1 m in the length of one of the
sides of the traverse. Find which side contains the mistake and, after
eliminating its effect, recomputed the easting, northing and vector
misclosures. [London]
Table 3.14
Leg E N
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA
43.62
+ 70.45
+ 50.85
23.01
53.73
61.39
34.71
+ 48.10
+ 73.37
25.86
Misclosures + 0.94 0.49
Solution. (i) Calculate the vector
misclosure of the traverse. The easting
misclosure is + 0.94 m and the
northing misclosure is 0.49 m, as
indicated in Fig. 3.11.
Whence vector misclosure
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
49 . 0 94 . 0 + + = m 06 . 1 =
with a bearing of
. , ' 32 117
49 . 0
94 . 0
tan
1
say

Fig. 3.11
(ii) Now find the side that is in error. We are given that the angles as
measured produced an acceptable micsclosure, and accordingly the
magnitude of the misclosure cannot be attributed to their measurement. In
such an eventuality we have to search for a side in the traverse which has
the same bearing, approximately, as that of the closing error. Bearings have
not been given in this example, but scrutiny of the data reveals that line BC
is the only one whose easting difference and northing difference bear some
proportional relationship with the corresponding difference of the closing
error, i.e. +70.45 m for E and 34.71 m for N against + 0.94 m and
0.49 m, respectively, in the closing error. Thus we can assume that BC is in
error by the amount stated.
The apparent length of BC ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
71 . 34 45 . 70 + =
m 54 . 78 =
Also, for BC,
. 03 . 2
71 . 34
45 . 70
N
E
=

=
A
A
. 92 . 1
49 . 0
94 . 0
=

=
A
A
N
E
If we accept that the length of BC should have been booked as 77.54 m (given
that it has been subjected to an error of 1 m) and recalculate the magnitudes of
the misclosures.
Corrected E for BC
m 55 . 69 45 . 70
54 . 78
54 . 77
+ =
+
=
Corrected N for BC m 27 . 34 71 . 34
54 . 78
54 . 77
=

=
Thus for the amended closing error, E = + 0.04 m
N = 0.05 m
( ) ( ) ( ) m 06 . 0 05 . 0 04 . 0
2 2
= + =
'. 19 141
05 . 0
04 . 0
tan
1
=

=

Magnitude

Bearing
3.5 Closed-link traverse
Measurements of the traverse ABCDE, as shown in Fig. 3.12, are given in
Table 3.15.
Station Clockwise angle Length
(m)
A
B
C
D
E
260 3118
123 5042
233 0006
158 2248
283 0018
129.352
81.700
101.112
94.273
Table 3.15.
WCB of EY = 282 0300
Figure 3.12
The measured angles are as shown in figure. Keeping the bearings XA and EY
and also the co-ordinates of A and E fixed, obtain the adjusted co-ordinates for B,
C and D using an equal shifts angular adjustment and Bowditch linear
adjustment.
[Bradford]
Introduction. Although in an extended form, rather than starting and
finishing at one point, this traverse is still a closed traverse, since it runs
between two points whose co-ordinates are fixed and two lines whose bearings
are fixed. It is known as a closed-link traverse can be readily adjusted.


Solution. Determined whole circle bearings. Starting with the bearing
of XA we should end with the given bearing of EY; if not then there will be
some angular error to balance.
This has to be shared out to five angles, i.e 21 to A and E and 20 to B, C
and D.
Next determine the easting and northing differences. Having
adjusted the observed angles and deduced the whole circle bearings of the
lines, the easting
Table 3.16
Line Length
(m)
WCB E
(m)
N
(m)
AB
BC
CD
DE
129.352
81.700
101.112
94.273
203 47 45
147 38 47
200 39 13
179 02 21
52.191
+ 43.721
35.664
+ 1.581
118.356
69.017
94.614
94.260
Total 406.437 42.553 376.247
Table 3.17
Point E
(m)
N
(m)
E
A
740.270
782.820
84.679
460.901
Differences 42.550 376.222
and northing differences are calculated for each line on the basic of
( ) ( ) WCB cos N and WCB sin E l l = A = A
From Table 3.16 it will be seen that the total difference is 42.553 mE and
376.247 mN. The fixed co-ordinates for A and E are as in Table 3.17. Thus
the easting differences and northing differences given by the actual
measurements are in error by
eastings 42.553 ( 42.550) = 0.003 m
northings 376.247 ( 376.222) = 0.025 m
Therefore corrections of +0.003 m and +0.025 m are required for easting
differences and northing distances, respectively.

Make the Bowditch adjustment of the easting and northing differences.
As stated previously the Bowditch linear adjustment for a particular line is
correction to easting difference
traverse of lenght total
dE line of lenght
=
correction to northing difference
traverse of lenght total
dN line of lenght
=
in which dE = +0.003 m and dN = +0.025 m for this traverse. Hence the
corrections to be applied are as in Table 3.18 and 3.19.

The computation of co-ordinates is given in Table 3.20.
Table 3.18
AB BC CD DE Totals
Length (m)
E correction (m)
E correction (m)
129.352
+ 0.001
+ 0.008
81.700
+ 0.000
+ 0.005
101.112
+ 0.001
+ 0.006
94.273
+ 0.001
+ 0.006
406.437
+ 0.003
+ 0.025
Table 3.19
Line Correction to E Corrected E Correction to N Corrected E
AB
BC
CD
DE
+ 0.001
0.000
+ 0.001
+ 0.001
52.190
+ 43.721
35.663
+ 1.582
+ 0.008
+ 0.005
+ 0.006
+ 0.006
118.348
69.012
94.608
94.254
42.550 m 376.222 (Check)
Table 3.20
station E
(m)
N
(m)
Co-ordinates A
E
AB

Co-ordinates B
E
BC

Co-ordinates C
E
CD

Co-ordinates D
E
DE

Co-ordinates E
782.820
52.190

730.630
43.721

774.351
35.663

738.688
1.582

740.270
460.901
N
AB
118.348

342.553
N
BC
69.012

273.541
N
CD
94.608

178.933
N
DE
94.254

84.679 (Check)
3.6 Errors introduced when centring the
theodolite
The magnitude of the errors in centring a theodolite over a station by various
methods has been investigated and the following results quoted

i.Plumb bob 3 mm
ii.Centring rod 2 mm
iii.Optical plummet 1 mm
iv.Constrained centering 0.1 mm

Compute the maximum errors in the measurement of a horizontal traverse
angle of approximately 120 resulting from each of the above centering errors,
assuming that the lengths of the adjacent drafts are 15 m and 25 m.
[Eng. Council]
Figure 3.13
T S R T S R T S R
2 1
. . .
= =
Introduction. In fig. 3.13 let the true centering position of the theodolite be S. It
is possible for the vertical axis of the theodolite to lie anywhere within a circle
of radius x from that point, x being one of the centering errors quoted above.
However, there will be two points on the perimeter of that circle at which the
true horizontal angle RST will be subtended. These are S
1
and S
2
which lie on
the circumference of the circle containing R, S, and T. Accord-ingly
because all three angles stand on chord RT.
Figure 3.14
Solution. First determine the maximum angular error due to a centring error of
3 mm. In Fig.3.14 the theodolite has been centred at U, distance x from S. The
measured horizontal angle
Now
, T U R
1
=
.
=
.
T S R
o + u =
| + o + u + | =
1
Whilst the correct angle
TU z =
y
sin
x
sin u
=
|
UR y =
| + | = E
Therefore the error in measurement
z
sin
x
sin o
=
|
But
In which
And
In which
" 1 sin " sin | = |
" 1 sin " sin | = |
arc of ond sec E | + | =
|
|
.
|

\
| o
+
u
=
o
+
u
=
z
sin
y
sin
" 1 sin
x
" 1 sin z
sin x
" 1 sin y
sin x
For small angles
And
Therefore
It will be noted that absolute maximum error E is given when sin and sin
have their maximum values. This occurs when = 90 and
= ( ) = 90, i.e.

180 T S R =
.
.
Note also that E increases as y and z decrease. However, in this case we are
given that is of order of 120, and for the maximum error arising in this
case
0
d
dE
=
o
.
( ) ( )
.
z
sin
y
sin cos sin sin
" 1 sin
x
d
dE
|
|
.
|

\
| o
+
o o
=
o
( )
|
|
.
|

\
| o
+
o
=
z
sin
y
sin
" 1 sin
x
E
( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
| o
+
o o
=
z
sin
y
sin cos cos sin
" 1 sin
x
( ) ( )
y
cos cos sin sin
z
cos o + o
=
o
( ) + o = cos tan sin z y

= o
sin z
cos z y
tan
. 2702078 . 1
65 . 21
5 . 12 15
120 sin 25
120 cos 25 15
=
+
=

=
Now
Therefore
Therefore
Or
Therefore say , ' 47 51

= o
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
25
' 47 51 sin
15
' 47 51 120 sin
" 1 sin
003 . 0
E

|
.
|

\
|
+ = =
25
87568 . 0
15
92859 . 0
" 1 sin
003 . 0
206265
" 1 sin
1
=
The direction of displacement of U is significant.
Taking case (i), x = 3 mm = 0.003 , thus
In which
and so E = 57.8 seconds.
3.7 Errors due to maladjustment of the
theodolite
Derive expressions for the error in horizontal circle readings taken using a
theodolite having the following maladjustments:

i. The line of collimation not perpendicular to the trunnion axis by a small
amount c.
ii. The trunnion axis not perpendicular to the vertical axis by a small amount i.

Hence prove that the effect of these of these maladjustments is eliminated
by using the mean of face left and face right readings.

Calculate the true value of angle PRQ from the reading given in Table 3.21
which were taken using a theodolite at R on face left only for which instrument
c is known to be 23 seconds left and I is known to be 15 seconds down at the
right
Station Horizontal
circle
Vertical circle
P
Q
27 15 27
112 27 53
42 15 12
28 12 34
depression
elevation
Table 3.21
Fig. 3.15
Introduction. In Fig. 3.15 the line of sight is shown to make a small
angle c with the perpendicular to the trunnion axis (which would be its correct
position). It sweeps along circle Z1QT1 when the telescope is rotated about the
trunnion axis for the pointing on Q. The reading of the horizontal circle,
however, is as if Q were in vertical circle ZS1 (to which Z1QT1 is parallel)
whereas it is actually in vertical circle ZQ1. Consequently, the error in the
horizontal circle reading is S1Q1 for this sighting, and it is positive on a
clockwise reading circle.
ZQ sin
S sin
SQ sin
Z sin
=
ZQ sin
S sin SQ sin
Z sin =
Let SQ be at right angles to ZS
1
, i.e. S = 90. Then in spherical triangle
ZSQ.
Therefore
For small angle we can write
( ) 1 90 sin
S sin SQ
z

=
( ) Q of altitude the QQ h
1
=
( ) 1 S sin ce sin
h cos
SQ
Z = =
, h sec c
h sec SQ
=
=
. c SQ writing =
In which
Therefore
In Fig.3.16 the left-hand support of the trunnion axis is higher than the right-
hand support and consequently the line of sight sweeps out Z
2
QS
3
, making
angle i with the vertical ZS
3
. Q appears to be on that circle but is in fact on
vertical circle ZQ
2
. Thus the error in horizontal circle reading for this
particular case is S
3
Q
2
and it is negative.

Consider spherical triangle QQ
2
S
3
in which Q
2
= 90
2 3 2
QQ tan i tan S Q sin =
Therefore for small angles , h tan i S Q
3 2
=
in which h is the altitude of Q
Fig. 3.16
The same expressions hold when depression angles are observed. In the
case of collimation error c the senses of the errors are the same since path
Z
1
QT
1
is parallel to ZS
1
throughout (see Fig. 3.15). However, in Fig. 3.16
Z
2
QS
3
is inclined to ZS
3
, the two effectively crossing at S
3
when moving from
elevation to depression. Thus there is a change in sense and P, in this particular
worker example, will have a positive error.

When face right observations are made the paths of the lines of sight
change direction Z
1
, moving to Z
1
in Fig. 3.15, thus giving an error of Q
1
S
1
in
the horizontal circle reading. This is of similar magnitude but of opposite sense
to S
1
Q
1
. Similarly, in Fig. 3.16, Z
2
moves to Z
2
and S
3
to S
4
, giving error S
4
Q
2
which is equal in magnitude but of opposite sense to error S
4
Q
2
which is equal
in magnitude but of opposite sense to error Q
2
S
3
.

Thus in each case the means of the face left and face right observations
will give the true value of the horizontal circle reading.
Solution. Determine angle
. Q R P
.
Tabulating the errors we have the values in Table 3.22.
Table 3.22
Sighting c sec h i tan h
RP
RQ
+ 23 sec 42 15 12 = + 31.1
+ 23 sec 28 12 34 = + 26.1
+ 15 tan 42 15 12 = + 13.6
15 tan 28 12 34 = 8.0
Applying corrections equal and opposite in sense to the above errors we obtain
the values given in Table 3.23.
Table 3.23
Sighting Observed angle Net correction Corrected angle
RQ
RP
112 27 53
27 15 27
18.1
44.7
112 27 34.9
27 14 42.3
85 12 52.6
Therefore the corrected angle " 53 ' 12 85 Q R P

=
.
to the nearest second.