Batch and Semi-batch Processing

Lecture 9
Heat Transfer
http://www.spiraxsarco.com/resources/steam-engineering-
tutorials/steam-traps-and-steam-trapping
Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering Vol 6
Sinnot
Process Heat Transfer - Kern
Heat transfer in batch processes
Heat transfer is not fundamentally different in batch and continuous
processes, however the emphasis is on heating of vessels rather
than heat exchangers. Where heat exchangers are used the
principles are exactly as has been seen in previous courses.

Both heating and cooling are important and the unsteady state
operations in batch processes can lead to heavy heat loads when
vessels are heated and cooled rather than having a steady-state
temperature maintained.

Generally steam is the preferred heating medium and cooling water the
preferred cooling medium. However for lower and higher
temperature applications other media may be needed eg chilled
water or brine for cold processes, refrigeration, heat transfer fluids
like Dowtherm for high temperatures.
Heat transfer in batch processes
Steam is the preferred heating medium because of its high latent
heat. It is the heat of vaporisation that is exploited in all steam
heating operations.

Cooling water is preferred because of its good thermal properties, its
ubiquitous nature and relatively benign interactions with materials of
construction (it can be used with carbon steel).

Steam and cooling water circuits can be expected to exist on all
process sites.

Other cooling and heating media are likely to be specific to a single
process and peripherals may need to be included in the costing of
the process.
Typical steam circuit
Steam Traps
Steam condenses in the heat transfer device and is returned to the boiler
via the condensate return system.

Steam does not leave heat exchangers or coils, condensate does.

At the exit from the exchanger we want to allow the condensate to pass out
freely but without any steam.

It is undesirable to allow condensate to build up in tubes or coils.

The device that lets condensate out and keeps steam in is a steam trap.

The steam trap has to allow for variations in condensate flow corresponding
to variations in heat transfer rate particularly important in batch processes.
Types of Steam Trap
Thermostatic identifies steam and condensate by temperature difference.
the condensate has to sub-cool below the steam temperature before release.

Mechanical senses the difference in density between the steam and the
condensate.
a float or bucket operates the valve.

Thermodynamic operation based on the difference in velocity of the steam
and condensate flowing through the valve

Miscellaneous everything not in the other groups, impact and labyrinth, for
example

There are many versions of each type.

Thermostatic
Balanced pressure thermostatic trap.
A is a bellows filled with a liquid that
boils at a lower temperature than
water.
From start-up of the steam system
initially cold air then cool
condensate will pass into the trap.
The valve B will remain wide open.
As the condensate warms up the
liquid in A will boil, expanding the
bellows and closing the valve onto
its seat C.
Eventually the condensate cools
down, the liquid in A condenses and
the valve opens, letting out the
condensate, which is replaced with
hot, and the cycle repeats.
A
C
B
Thermostatic
Other types of thermostatic trap:

Liquid expansion the element that opens and shuts the valve is filled
with a liquid, usually an oil, which expands and contracts with varying
temperature.

Metallic expansion similar to liquid expansion but using a metal rod.
The rod needs to be long (~ 1m).

Bimetal various types using bimetallic element to shut valves at high
temperature.


Mechanical
Simple float and lever trap
Condensate enters through A and
the ball, B, rises as the
condensate level increases.
The outlet valve D gradually
opens as the ball lifts.
If the condensate level falls to the
lowest level the valve will be shut
and no steam will escape.
This valve can pose problems at
start-up since air cannot pass
through it. This can be vented
manually at E.
Some designs have an automatic
air venting system.
Other mechanical traps
Open top bucket these use a bucket instead of a float. The
bucket floats in condensate when empty but sinks when full. The
bucket fills with condensate, sinking and opening a valve. Steam
pressure forces the water out of the bucket reseating the valve.

Inverted bucket The inverted bucket is raised by steam pressure,
keeping the outlet valve closed. If the steam is displaced by
condensate the bucket sinks, opening the discharge valve.
Thermodynamic
Closing thermodynamic trap
Closed thermodynamic trap
.
The disc seats over an annular
groove machined on the seat face,
this seals off the outlet of the trap
when the disc is down.
Initially a flow of cold air or
condensate lifts the disc and flows
through the outlet.
If steam flows through the trap it
flows at a higher velocity for the
same mass flowrate. the pressure
drops due to this higher velocity and
the disc is drawn down. Steam then
enters the chamber above the disc,
producing a static pressure over the
disc area, snapping the trap shut.
Once the steam above the disc
condenses the cycle starts again.
disc
seat
General points about steam
We want to return condensate for several reasons:

it is hot, so the amount of heat needed at the boiler is reduced over
using fresh feed water

boiler feed water is conditioned to remove dissolved gases and minerals
which can be corrosive and fouling this has a cost, and reusing
condensate minimises this cost.

Steam temperature can be controlled via its pressure; useful when
the surface temperature has a maximum value for example.
Calculation of heat transfer rates - Jackets
The contents of a well-agitated vessel are assumed to have uniform
temperature. The overall heat transfer coefficient between vessel to jacket
service is affected by the following components:

The film heat transfer coefficients, h
W
at the inside vessel wall and h
j
at the
outer surface of the vessel wall

The thermal resistance (x
i
/k
i
) of the vessel wall. This is often negligible for a
metal-walled vessel in comparison to the film coefficients but can be
significant for rubber, enamel or glass lined vessels.

as the vessel diameter is large (so no
problem with unequal internal and
external areas) and ignoring fouling.

+ + =
j i
i
w
h k
x
h U
1 1 1
Effect of wall thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivities of
common materials (W/mK):
carbon steel: 45

stainless steel: 16

aluminium: 206

copper: 378

rubber: 0.09

glass: 1
U for steam condensing and aqueous
solution with 2mm wall of various
materials (W/m
2
K)
carbon steel: 1040 (cost = 1)
stainless steel: 960 (cost = 8)
aluminium: 1079 (cost = 3)
copper: 1085 (cost = 2.7)
rubber*: 43
glass*: 343

*neglecting steel layer
costs based on weight, not taking
strength etc into account.
Condensing steam film coefficients
In this situation the coefficient for condensing steam is going to be
much larger than the liquid film coefficient of the process fluid. It will
not offer the limiting resistance to heat transfer so a constant high
value can be used. A figure of 8000 W/m
2
K can be used (Sinnot and
Kern)
Condensing steam film coefficients
For example if the film coefficient inside the vessel is 1500 W/m
2
K (from
an example in Sinnot) and the steam coefficient is 8000 W/m
2
K and
the wall is 4mm carbon steel:


K W/m 1131 U
K/W m 10 84 . 8
000125 . 0 000089 . 0 00067 . 0
8000
1
45
004 . 0
1500
1 1
2
2 4
=
=
+ + =
+ + =

U
K W/m 1164 U
K/W m 10 59 . 8
0001 . 0 000089 . 0 00067 . 0
10000
1
45
004 . 0
1500
1 1
2
2 4
=
=
+ + =
+ + =

U
If the steam coefficient is
increased to 10 000 W/m
2
K
The film heat transfer
coefficient between a fluid in
the jacket and the vessel
wall is usually small and
determined by natural
convection rather than
forced convection, because
the velocity of fluid in the
jacket is small.


Efforts are made to improve
it by adding direction and
velocity to the jacket fluid.
From Sinnot Ch 12
Jacket choice
Cost
simple (no baffles) < agitation nozzles < spiral baffle <dimple <half-pipe

Heat transfer rate
baffles or half-pipe jacket give higher rates.

Pressure
Jackets up to 10 bar
dimpled jackets up to 20 bar
half-pipe up to 70 bar
Equations for Film Coefficients

Inside of vessel wall
(process fluid):
where
h
W
= inside wall film heat transfer coefficent
D
V
= vessel diameter
k = thermal conductivity of vessel contents
D = agitator diameter
N = agitator revs
= density of vessel contents
Cp = specific heat of vessel contents
f, a are constants specific to agitator design and geometry



3
1
2
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
k
Cp N D
f
k
D h
a
V W

Values of f and a for correlation
Agitator type Re f a

Flat blade disc
Unbaffled or baffled

<400
>400

0.54
0.74

0.67
0.67

Retreating blade turbine, 3 blades
Jacketed and baffled vessel

Glassed steel impeller
Alloy steel impeller
2x10
4
2x10
6

0.33
0.37
0.67
0.67

3-bladed propeller, baffled vessel 5500-37000 0.64 0.67

Flat blade paddle
Baffled or unbaffled
4000 0.36 0.67

Anchor 30-300 1.00 0.50
300-5000 0.38 0.67

Inside Wall of Jacket
Flow of service fluid k
Upward of heating fluid or downward of cooling fluid 0.15
Downward of heating fluid or upward of cooling fluid 0.128

33 . 0
2
2
33 . 0
' ' 8 . 0
|
|
.
|

\
| A
|
.
|

\
|
=

u | g
k
Cp
k
k
h
j
NB heat transfer assumed to be largely natural convection
= coefficient of thermal expansion of jacket service fluid
= temperature difference between outer wall of vessel
and jacket fluid
Inside Wall of Jacket
For very rapid circulation of jacket fluid use a modified tube-type
turbulent flow equation based on the mean velocity u of the fluid
in the jacket and the jacket-vessel clearance d = D
J
-D
V,O
as
length dimension:
4 . 0
8 . 0
'
023 . 0
'
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
k
Cp ud
k
d h
J

Coils
Outside coil coefficient

Inside coil coefficient

where d
i
= internal coil diameter and u = fluid velocity in
coil.

Correction for curvature of coil

d being the outside tube diameter and d
C
the coil diameter.

Coils are very liable to damage and leakage of heat
transfer fluid into the batch.
3
1
62 . 0
2
87 . 0
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
k
Cp N D
k
D h
V o

4 . 0
8 . 0
023 . 0
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
k
Cp ud
k
d h
i i W

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
c
pipe straight i coil i
d
d
h h 5 . 3 1
) ( ) (
Heating and Cooling Times for Batch
Vessels
The thermal capacity to be
heated or cooled has a
number of components:
Vessel, mass m
V
, specific
heat Cp
V
Contents, mass m
B
,
specific heat Cp
B
Agitator, mass m
A
,
specific heat Cp
A
Jacket usually at service
temperature throughout.



The total thermal capacity of the vessel, contents etc. is written as
(mCp)
all
, which in this case would be equal to m
B
Cp
B
+ m
V
Cp
V
+
m
A
Cp
A
, including as many terms as are necessary, e.g. for a
multiphase batch.

If the temperature of the vessel plus contents is T, the area for heat
transfer A, the temperature of the jacket service T
J
(taken as
constant, e.g. for a high fluid circulation rate or a
condensing/evaporating heat transfer medium) and the overall heat
transfer coefficient U, then the heat balance equation can be written



where represents time.
) ( ) ( T T UA
d
dT
mCp
j all
= E
u
Heating and Cooling Times for Batch
Vessels
Heating and Cooling Times for Batch
Vessels
Separating the variables and inserting the boundary conditions T = T
1
,
= 0 and T = T
2
at = u
H
(heating time)


) ( ) ( T T UA
d
dT
mCp
j all
= E
u
} }
E
=

H
d
mCp
UA
T T
dT
all
T
T
j
u
u
0
) (
2
1
2
1
ln
) (
T T
T T
UA
mCp
j
j
all
H

E
= u
giving:
Heating and Cooling Times for Batch
Vessels
This equation depends on the jacket temperature being
constant- most appropriate for steam heating or cooling
with an evaporating refrigerant liquid.


However, it is applicable either for heating (T
J
> T
2
> T
1
) or
for cooling (T
1
> T
2
> T
J
). The sign of the logarithmic
argument is positive in both cases because it is the
quotient of two terms of the same sign.

2
1
ln
) (
T T
T T
UA
mCp
j
j
all
H

E
= u
Example
A vessel is made from carbon steel (Cp = 0.5 kJ/kg K) and,
together with its ends and internals, weighs 4800 kg. It
contains 8 m
3
of a material with density 800 kg/m
3
and Cp
= 3.5 kJ/kg K. If the heat transfer area is 30 m
2
and the
overall heat transfer coefficient 650 W m
-2
K
-1
, how long
would it take to heat up from 25
o
C to 120
o
C, using low
pressure steam (T* = 130
o
C) as the heating medium?

(mCp)
all
= 0.5 x 4800 + 8 x 800 x 3.5 = 24800 kJ/K
(UA) = 30 x 0.65 = 19.5 kW/K


= 2990 seconds, 50 minutes.

120 130
25 130
ln
5 . 19
24800

=
H
u
Heat-up/cool down with a sensible heat
medium
In this case, the jacket
temperature can no longer
be taken as constant. We
assume a straight-line
flowpath of the heat
transfer fluid through the
jacket so that the
temperature of the heat
transfer medium decreases
steadily (heating) or
increases steadily
(cooling).
Consider heat transfer over
an area element dA at
which the heat transfer
medium temperature is t,
increasing to t + dt as it
passes the area element.
The heat transfer medium enters at t
1
and leaves at t
2
. We take a time
instant at which the temperature of the vessel is T. The flowrate of the
heat transfer medium is and its heat capacity is C. Other units as
before. The heat balance for the flowing heat transfer medium is


so that

Integrating over the whole area of the jacket,


m
dA t T U Cdt m ) ( =

t T
dt
U
C m
dA

=

| |
2
1
ln ) ln(
2
1
2
1
t T
t T
U
C m
t T
U
C m
t T
dt
U
C m
A
t
t
t
t

= =

=
}

Heat-up/cool down with a sensible heat
medium
If the vessel is heating up, t
1
> t
2
> T so (T- t
1
) > (T- t
2
) and the
argument of the logarithm is still positive.
This enables us to work out the log mean temperature difference for the
jacket as a whole.

say K
C m
UA
t T
t T
, exp
2
2
1
=
)
`

) (
1
) (
1
1 ) ( ) (
1
2
2
1
2
2 1
t T
K
K
t T
K
t T t T

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Heat-up/cool down with a sensible heat
medium
And so
UA
C m
t T
K
K
t T
t T
t T t T
T
LM

) (
1
ln
) ( ) (
1
2
2
2
1
2 1

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

= A
The dynamic heat balance equation becomes



Integrating as before,



and


This is the equation to calculate heat-up time for a vessel with a non-
isothermal heat transfer medium.

) (
1
) (
1
2
2
t T C m
K
K
T UA
d
dT
mCp
LM all

|
|
.
|

\
|
= A = E
u
} } |
|
.
|

\
|
=

E
u
u
0
2
2
1
1
) (
2
1
d C m
K
K
t T
dT
mCp
T
T
all

1 2
1 1
2
2
1 1
1 2
2
2
ln
1
) (
ln
1
) (
t T
t T
K
K
C m
mCp
t T
t T
K
K
C m
mCp
all all

E
=

E
=

u
Heat-up/cool down with a sensible heat
medium
Example
How long would it take to heat up the vessel as before, but this time
using a sensible-heat transfer medium flowing at 5 kg/s and with
initial temperature 130
o
C, if its heat capacity is 4 kJ/kg K?





= 4682 s or 78 minutes.
Longer than for the steam heating case because the mean
temperature difference is smaller.
651 . 2 ) 975 . 0 exp(
4 5
30 65 . 0
exp exp
2
= =
)
`

=
)
`

=
C m
UA
K

130 120
130 25
ln
1 651 . 2
651 . 2
4 5
24800

= O
H