KNOWLEDGE

SOURCES

SENSE EXPERIENCE

INTUITIVE INSIGHTS

REASONING

EVIDENCE/ EXPERIENCE

EXPERIMENTS

AUTHORITY

KNOWLEDGE BRANCHES

EPISTEMOLOGY

THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

PHENOMENOLOGY

METHODOLOGY

ONTOLOGY

Commonsense Meaning of Research

Research is usually associated with the outcomes of endeavours of scholars who pursue it in order to earn such degrees as M.Phil/M.Litt/Ph.D./D.Phil or D.Litt/D.Sc. of some university. Another genre of research is associated with the findings contained in the project reports, while the projects may or may not be sponsored, or the projects may constitute an integral part of the programme of studies for specific degrees or diplomas. The 'common notion of research' also associates it with the findings of the scientists who do extensive work in research laboratories, research institutes or post graduate departments of the faculty of science of the universities, though research is also undertaken by scholars other than the physical / natural scientists. These notions of research portray obliquely the meaning and nature of research. This portrayal of research may, however, constrain the nature and narrow the scope of the subject-matter of research. The discussion of definition (s) of research and its methodology may as well be started with an examination of definitions enunciated by other scholars. But let first day today or commonsense concept and the dictionary meaning be considered to highlight the nature and scope of research on the one hand, and to expose the distinction between the technical meaning and general notion of research, if any, on the other.

Dictionary Meaning of Research

Literal meanings of "Research' are "re-search', or search again, implying literally the possession of awareness of the efforts having been made in the past to know the given phenomenon. It means that research seldom, if ever, occurs without there being precedents. But no one re-invents the wheel, though wheels may be made daily. This means that research does not stand for investigating a given subject again and again to reach the same results. The word re before search may be interpreted to mean that research is an endeavour to advance ahead of the prevailing and go beyond what is already known about the given phenomenon. Research may thus be defined as an effort to know more about any given subject or topic. In common parlance, research may thus refer to a search for knowledge. Research has also been defined as a systematic inquiry for finding relevant facts or information about the subject of investigation. The phenomenal world may, however, not be completely factual. It may partly be factual and partly be perceptual. As facts may also be real as well as perceptual, research as the search for real and perceptual facts may apparently be accepted as the commonsense definition of research. The commonsense definition may be compared and contrasted with the dictionary meaning of research in order to understand and appreciate the limitations, if any, of the commonsense definition, and hence, the need for evolving a technical definition of research and its methodology.

Research: Technical Definition

Slesinger and Stephenson define research as the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art (Encyclopedia of Social Sciences). Though this definition is free from some limitations discussed earlier, still its focus misses vital aspects of research. The missed aspects will become obvious when the objectives and types of research are discussed in detail. Other limitations of the definition may be considered with reference to the following: Research generally involves various steps and each step focuses on one or more aspects: (i) Identification of the broad problem area of research and specification of the exact problem is the first step in the sequence. Survey of literature may help in identifying the problem in the selected area to be taken up for research. The survey familiarizes with the existing hypotheses/theories/laws and the gaps therein, if any, and it also exposes policies in operation, and data easily available etc.. Knowledge of these will help in choosing a suitable problem for investigation. Investigation may also relate to practical problems or policy designs.

The survey of literature may highlight the consonance or dissonance between the conceptual framework and theoretical paradigms, suggesting important problems for investigation; (ii) Identification of the problem of investigation will naturally necessitate the collection, classification and tabulation of data pertaining to the identified problem, (iii) Formulation of some working hypothesis, if received theory does not furnish one relevant for investigation of the problem in hand, will be the next logical step. Possible solution for the problem of investigation may also be anticipated in advance, (iv) Analysis of data or/and available evidence for drawing inferences comes next, (v) Evaluation of deductions or inferences to determine whether these do or do not conform to the formulated thesis will follow the previous step. It may also involve the empirical validation/verification of hypothesis, (vi) Evaluation of the impact of policy or change on the given scenario is a step in research pertaining to policy (cf. Cliffrod Woody, Encyclopedia).

Theory
The origin of the word Theory is the Greek word Theoria which means Speculation, Guess or Conjecture. Theory is, therefore, contrasted with Practice. In this sense, practice refers to some activity or phenomenon that has an observable existence in reality, whereas theory, in contrast to practice, may refer to the imagery or just an image of this phenomenon or activity. Since the word Theorem is a derivative of the word Theory, its meaning may also help us in under standing the connotation of theory. Theorem in Physics and Mathematics is an expression of a general proposition or rule that can be proved by reasoning. Thus, the theorem may seek to explain as to what the observed matter is; what factors have shaped and guided the process to be in the form or state in which it exists. Therefore, theorem, like law or principle, is the statement of a causal relation that is subject to the specified conditions. But the relation is prone to be proved by logic. Thus, the proof of a theorem is not contingent upon any empirical evidence; it just needs logical articulation. The logic may proceed with certain suppositions/assumptions. The theory seeks to determine the pattern and the cause underlying the change in the observed phenomenon. Alternatively, theory may be said to seek to determine the uniformities of coexistence of two or more factors and the sequence in which the change in the observed values of the factors occur. Thus, the theory is concerned with the formulation/establishment of general laws that pertain to the observed tendencies.

On this analogy, theory may be described as a well reasoned statement that projects a mental image of some process or phenomenon by means of which the chain of cause and its effect materializes. Theory may also refer to the principle that guides the performance of a specialized activity or offers an explanation of some occurrence or a social/physical phenomenon. The Theory of Education may be a good example of the usage of the term in the sense of an activity. Thus, the term theory may be used to express either the statement of a causal relation, based purely on the principle of abstraction from practice to push logic into the centre stage; or a statement of a causal relation based on evidence and supported by logic. The evidence may be garnered from experiment (s) or practice or facts, historical or ahistorical. Theory may be described as the result of the process of miniaturizing a complex into a simple and huge into a small phenomenon; it abstracts from the mundane and irrelevant details with a view to have the pointed focus on the essentials in order to reduce the size and remove complexities. Elimination of the mundane or non-essential elements/aspects of a phenomenon is achieved through the process of abstraction from details. Assumptions, associated with theorizing, play the pivotal role in abstraction/simplication and size reduction. Assumptions are designed to reduce a vast/huge into a finite/limited and complex into a simple phenomenon.

It is like an advance drawing on paper or a clay/stone model of a vast building. For example, models of Tajmahal, that look like the real, are sold in Agra in thousands. These miniaturized Tajmahals which look like an exact replica in colour, shape, design and structure of real Taj. Theory is a similar replication of real phenomenon in a miniaturised form. Theory, in this sense, connotes an idea or a set of ideas put forward as a conjecture to explain a given phenomenon and it embodies the rules of procedure that govern its operational aspects. The idea or its explanation may emanate from the belief in some thing to be true and the assumptions from which the belief arises. The belief may be rooted partly or wholly in reality, or it may arise from experience or observation or it may just originate from intuitive imagination. The assumptions may be designed to i) simplify by eliminating the less important or inessentials; ii) relate theory to institutional set up; iii) behavioural aspects; and iv) social factors. Hazarding of a guess regarding the causes of Tsunami may belong to the category of theory based purely on speculation/guess or imagination. Similarly, earthquake may also not be explained fully scientifically. The Hindu Mythology projects the idea that the earth is kept on the horns of the cow. When she gets tired and changes her posture, earth shakes.

Theory that attempts to explain or furnish an understanding of business operations or the economy may be put in the category of theory designed to explain the observed phenomenon. As against this, much of the theorizing about the Origin of the Universe is speculative. This may suggest the classification of theory into two distinct categories: Pure Theory and Empirical Theory. Between these two limits, there is the category of quasi empirical and quasi speculative theory. Thus, theory may be purely speculative, which is supported by assumptions and logic on which it is based. It may be designated as Pure Theory or Philosophy. Alternatively, theory may be purely empirical, which draws sustenance mainly from experience, observation or empirical evidence, though it partly gets support from logical consistency. Such theories result from empirical theorizing, that is, generalization of an inference drawn from limited evidence. Theory may also be partially speculative and partly empirical. The conception of first type of theory may be derived from Deductive Positivism rather than Scientific Positivism. As against the Deductive Positivism, Scientific Positivism may use both logic and experience. It means that a scientific theory has to be supported both by logic and empirical evidence. The empirical theorizing may base the Conception of Theory on Inductive Positivism. Here, the terms Deduction connotes Pure Logicism, devoid of any requirement of empirical or experiential evidence to support the reasoning, underlying the statement relating cause to its effect. It implies the domination of logic over facts.

Induction stands for the use of experience, observation or empirical evidence as the basic prop to support the statement of causal relation. Inductive Theory may basically be empirical, by and large. But it does not mean that there is no place for logic in inductivism. It only means that evidence is dominant and logic is dominated. It is quasi empirical and quasi logical. But empirical theory stands for that theory which is not of the Most Abstract Character/Nature. In fact, the practices, obtaining at any point of time, cannot be perceived, and hence, evolved and constructed purely a priori. Practices relate to facts and facts evolve over a period of time. The real characteristics and prominent features of any existing socio-economic system can distinctly be perceived, if we trace its evolution and take note of the important phases and stages which it has traversed through to reach the current state. For example, the Indian taxation system has moved through distinct phases since 1951. Same is true about the trade union movement. Basic facets of current industrialization of Indian economy can be understood and explained better in the context of its historical evolution. Incidentally, there are very few theories in social sciences which are purely speculative. Empirical theorizing occupies the prime space in social sciences. But empirical evidence in general and its historical evolution in particular may help. Empirical theorization occurs only indirectly from evidence and that too in an indefinite form, limiting the role and function of empirical evidence to being just a support (Cf. Popper, 1966).