Introduction Lecture

MACHINE?
A machine is a combination of resisting bodies with successfully constrained relative motions which is used to transform other forms of energy into mechanical energy or transmit and modify available energy to do some useful work. EXAMPLE: HEAT ENGINE Heat Energy Mechanical Energy

Introduction to Design Process

Machine design (Technical Decision making process)

Purpose of design Design for what situation Material Finally the aesthetics Adaptive Design (slight modifications in existing one) Development Design New Design

OTHER TYPES Rational design (Determining size based on stresses and strains)

Empirical design (Based on Empirical relations i.e. scientific principles)

Industrial design (based on market survey, low cost, production facilities, reverse Engineering)

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED

Mechanism to be used Material Loading Size, shape & space

requirements Method of manufacturing Operating environment Safety Inspect ability Maintenance, Cost & Aesthetics

Titanic failure

Why Environment is Important in Design?

Why material selection is important in design? Pressure Temperature Corrosion

Factors influencing Machine Design

Strength (Internal resistance offered by a part) Rigidity (Resistance to deformation) Wear resistance (Resistance to wear) Minimum dimensions and weight Manufacturability (Type of fabrication processes) Safety Conformance to standards (Use of standard parts) Reliability (Trustworthiness) Minimum life cycle cost (Maintenance)

Material selection based on Mechanical properties

Strength Stiffness Elasticity Plasticity Ductility

ability to resist external forces ability to resist deformation under stress property to regain its original shape property which retains the deformation produced under load property of a material to be drawn into wire form with using tensile force

Brittleness property of breaking a material without any deformation Malleability property of a material to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets Toughness property to resist fracture under impact load Machinability property of a material to be cut Resilience Creep Fatigue Hardness

property of a material to absorb energy material undergoes slow and permanent deformation when subjected to constant failure of material due to cyclic loading resistant to indentation, scratch

stress with high temperature

Buckling Corrosion Creep Fatigue Fracture Impact Mechanical overload Rupture Thermal shock Wear Yielding

Why stresses are induced in a component?

Due to Energy transmitted (kinetic energy strain energy) Example: Spring Due to Self weight of the machine component Due to friction Due to Inertia (resistance to change its position) of the moving parts Due to Change in temperature Due to fabrication

Stresses vs. Resisting Areas

For Direct loading or Axial loading

For transverse loading

For tangential loading or twisting

Where I and J Resistance properties of cross sectional area

I Area moment of inertia of the cross section about the axes lying on the section (i.e. xx and yy)

J Polar moment of inertia about the axis perpendicular to the section

Stress Strain Curve

Ductile materials Brittle materials

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Proportional limit Elastic limit Yield point Ultimate stress Breaking stress

Necking

Measure of ductility Percentage reduction in area Percentage elongation

Simple Design

Bending and Torsional Equations

Bending Equation Torsional Equation

M Bending moment, I Area moment of Inertia, Bending Stress,

y distance from the neutral axis to the extreme layer, E Modulus of Elasticity, R Radius of Curvature Torsional shear stress, r Radius of the shaft, T Twisting moment, J Polar moment of inertia, C Modulus of rigidity, Angle of twist, L Length of the shaft

Radius of curvature

Bending moment

Beam

Dimensions of a cross section

Bending stress

Bending stresses or Longitudinal stresses ( out of plane stresses)

Pure Bending

 If the length of a beam is subjected to a constant bending moment and no shear force ( zero shear force) then the stresses will be set up in that length of the beam due to bending moment only then it is said to be in pure bending. Under bending, top fibers subjected to compressive stresses and bottom fiber subjected to tensile stresses and vice versa.

In the middle layer (neutral axis), there is no stress due to external load.

Assumptions in the Evaluation of Bending stress

Practical Application of Bending Equation In actual situation , when you consider any structure bending moment varies from point to point and it also accompanied by shearing force. In large number of practical cases, the bending moment is maximum where shear force is zero. It seems justifiable that to apply bending equation at that point only. Hence our assumptions in pure bending (zero shear force) is a valid one.

Plane of Bending
Under what basis Ixx, Iyy and Izz have to be selected in bending equation?

X - Plane

Y - Plane

Z - Plane

Torque or Twisting Moment

Twisting moment

Twisting & Rotation ?

Gear Reaction Torque

Torque Applied
Key

Resisting Tangential force Shaft

Torsional Equation
R = Radius of shaft, L = Length of the shaft T = Torque applied at the free end C = Modulus of Rigidity of a shaft material = torsional shear stress induced at the cross section = shear strain, = Angle of twist

Design for Bending

When a shaft is subjected to pure rotation, then it has to be designed for bending stress which is induced due to bending moment caused by self weight of the shaft. Example: Rotating shaft between two bearings.

Design for Bending & Twisting

When a gear or pulley is mounted on a shaft by means of a key, then it has to be designed for bending stress (induced due to bending moment)

and also torsional shear stress which is caused due to torque induced
by the resistance offered by the key . Example: gearbox shaft (splines)

Polar moment of inertia [J]

[Area moment of inertia about the axis perpendicular to the section of the shaft]

Shaft circular cross section

Shear stress distribution in solid & hollow shafts

FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGN
TYPES OF LOADING Static loading TYPES OF STRESSES Based on types of loading - Tensile, compressive & shear - Shear direct shear, - Torsional shear Based on direction - Axial, Bending & twisting - Combination of above Based on contact surfaces - Contact stresses - Bearing stresses OR crushing stresses

Dynamic loading Fluctuating loading Repeated loading Reversed bending loading

Based on amplitude - Constant amplitude loading - Non constant amplitude loading Based on direction and magnitude - Dead load - Live load

Factor of Safety

For Ductile Materials

For Brittle Materials

For Variable loading

Principal Stresses for various load combinations

In a machine component several types of loads are acting simultaneously, then it is very important to find the maximum stress induced plane in a component to avoid failure. This max value of normal stress to the plane is known as principal stress and the plane is known as principal plane. The value of shear stress induced in that plane is zero. Bending stresses in two directions Torsional shear stress due to twisting

Biaxial and shear loading

Max principal normal stresses

Max principal shear stresses

Combined Loading in Design

Stresses in element A

Since the axial and Torsional shear stresses are constant throughout the beam the most Critical cross section is the fixed end.

No bending stress on the element B. bending stress and axial stress are in opposite nature at A and C.
Therefore for the safe design we consider the stresses on the element A.

Eccentric Loading
If the line of action of a load is not passing through the Centroid of the machine component, then that is knows as eccentric load. There are different kinds of stresses will be induced eccentric loading

during

For eccentric axial load, Direct stress and bending stress To find out the magnitude of resultant stress, these combination of stresses have to be super imposed.

Eccentric Loading Examples

For eccentric plane load, Direct shear and torsional shear stress

Design of curved beams

In curved beam neutral axis of beam in unloaded condition is curve instead of straight. Neutral axis is shifted towards the centre of curvature. Centroidal axis and neutral axis are not same. Bending stress distribution is hyperbolic and not varying in a linear manner. The beam is initially curved before unloading. Thus the length of the inner fiber is less than the outer fiber. So the bending stress is high at the inner portion of a beam.

In case of symmetrical cross section always stress is high at the inner fiber. But in case of unsymmetrical Cross section, both inner and outer bending stresses have to be calculated.

Theories of Failure
Predicting failure in the members subjected to uniaxial stress is very simple and straightforward. Because all failure criterions are reaching the critical limit at an instant. But in multi axial loading the prediction of failure is much complicated. Because predicting the cause of failure i.e. which quantity of failure criterion is causing failure is difficult to find. Thus, theories were formulated to predict this issue, which are known as failure theories.

Simple Tension Test

In

simple tension test, all six quantities reaches its critical values simultaneously (at a single instant). Any one of the following will cause failure.

Principal normal stress

Principal shear stress principal strain energy Principal strain Distortion energy

yield stress max = y or u]

yield shear stress max = y /2 strain energy at yield point Utotal = [y y] strain at yield point max = y /E (or) u /E distortion energy at yield point Udistortion = (1+)/6E * [2y2]

Stress in an Inclined Plane

The plane perpendicular to the line of action of the load is a principal plane. [Because, It is having the maximum stress value and shear stress in this plane is zero.] The plane which is at an angle of 90 will have no normal and tangential stress.

Max. shear stress = Normal stress

Note to Remember: When a component is subjected to a tensile loading, then both tensile and shear stresses will be induced. Similarly, when it is subjected to a compressive loading, then both compressive and shear stresses induced. At one particular plane the normal stress (either tensile or compressive) will be maximum and the shear stress in that plane will be zero. That plane is known as principal plane. That particular magnitude of normal stress is known as principal stress. The magnitude of maximum principal stress will be higher when compare with the loads acting.

Why failure theories?

Principal stress < Yield stress [safe] but, Shear stress exceeds its limit.

Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory (Rankines Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum principal or normal stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting strength of the material in a simple tension test. This theory is based on failure in tension or compression and ignores the possibility of failure due to shearing stress, therefore it is not used for ductile materials. For Brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear but weak in tension or compression, this theory is generally used.

Max principal stress [1] [y] yield stress

(In a multi axial loading) (In a simple tension test)

Maximum Shear Stress Theory

Maximum Principal Strain Theory (Saint Venants Theory) According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum principal strain in a multi axial stress system reaches the limiting value of strain (strain at yield point) as determined from a simple tension test.

The strain in the direction of 1 [1] =

 According to this theory of failure, 1 could be increased to a value somewhat higher than y without causing yielding if the second normal stress 2 is a tensile stress. But if 2 is a compressive stress the maximum value of 1 that could be applied without causing yielding would be somewhat smaller than y.
This theory is not applicable if the failure in elastic behavior is by yielding. It is applicable when the conditions are such that failure occurs by brittle fracture. Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Haighs Theory) According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the strain energy per unit volume in a biaxial stress system reaches the limiting strain energy (strain energy at yield point) per unit volume as determined from the simple tension test.

Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky and Von Mises Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the distortion strain energy (shear strain energy) per unit volume in a biaxial stress system reaches the limiting distortion energy (distortion energy per unit volume) as determined from a simple tension test.

Total strain energy U = Uv + Ud

Ud = U - Uv

Ud = 1/2E [12 + 22+ 32] - /E [12+ 23+ 13] [2avg/E v]

Substitute the values, avg = [1+ 2+ 3]/3 and Ev = E / [3(1 - 2)]

We will get, For triaxial loading, the distortion energy

Ud = (1+) / 6E [(1 - 2) 2 + (2 - 3)2 + (3 1)2]

For uniaxial tension test

Ud = (1+) / 6E [(1 2 + 1)2]

Ud = (1+) / 3E [y2] [When 1 reaches y]

Thus, the left side of the Equation is a single, equivalent, or effective stress for the entire general state of stress given by 1, 2, and 3. This effective stress is usually called the von Mises stress, , named after Dr. R. von Mises, who contributed to the theory.

Stress Concentration
Reasons for stress concentration Variation in properties of materials

Load application
Abrupt changes in cross section Discontinuities in the component Machining scratches

Stress concentration: Localization of high stresses due to the irregularities present in the component and abrupt changes of the cross section

Stress concentration in brittle materials

Brittle materials do not yield locally and there is no readjustment of stresses at the discontinuities. (due to inability of plastic deformation)

When the magnitude of stress reaches the ultimate strength of the material, a crack will nucleate and increases the stress concentration at the crack.
Therefore, stress concentration factors have to be used in the design of brittle materials.

Stress concentration in ductile materials (static load)

When the stress reaches the yield point, then there will be a local plastic deformation near the discontinuity which will lead to redistribution of stresses near the stress concentration zone. There is no remarkable damage to the machine component. This redistribution of stresses will be restricted to very small area.

Stress concentration in ductile materials (fluctuating load)

Due to fluctuating load the component may fail due to fatigue. stress concentration will leads to the reduction in endurance limit of the ductile materials. Therefore stress concentration factors have to be used in the design of machine components made of ductile materials.

Fluctuating stresses

max = max stress ; min = min stress ; a = stress amplitude mean = mean stress
The stresses induced in a machine component due to dynamic load (change in magnitude with respect to time) is known as fluctuating stresses.

Variable loading
Change in magnitude of the applied load Example: Punching machine Change in direction of the load Example: Connecting rod Change in point of application Example: Rotating shaft Types of loading Fully Reversed loading

Repeated loading

Design of machine components for fluctuating load

Number of cycles Stress amplitude

Mean stress

Fatigue
Stress amplitude Residual stresses

Stress concentration

Corrosion & creep

Endurance limit or fatigue limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number of cycles without fatigue failure. 106 cycles are considered as a sufficient number of cycles to define the endurance limit. Fatigue life: the total number of stress cycles that the standard specimen can complete during the test before appearance of the first fatigue crack.

Fatigue failure ( time delayed fracture under cyclic loading) Fatigue failure begins with a crack at some point in the material .

Regions of discontinuities (oil holes, keyways and screw threads)

Regions of irregularities in machining operations (scratches on the surface, stamp mark, inspection marks) Internal cracks due to defects in materials like blow holes These regions are subjected to stress concentration due to crack, then due to fluctuating load the crack spreads.

Region indicating slow growth of crack with a fine fibrous appearance

Region of sudden fracture with a coarse granular appearance

Notch sensitivity factor (q)

In case of dynamic loading, if stress concentration present in the material, then it will reduce the endurance limit.
The actual reduction in the endurance limit of a material due to stress concentration under dynamic loading is varied by the theoretical values predicted using theoretical stress concentration factor. Therefore two separate stress concentration factors are used . i.e. Kt and Kf. kf is the fatigue stress concentration factor

kf = Endurance limit of the notch free specimen / Endurance limit of the notched specimen
Notch sensitivity [q] : Susceptibility of a material to succumb to the damaging effects of stress raising notches in fatigue loading. q = Increase of actual stress over nominal stress / Increase of theoretical stress over nominal stress

o = nominal stress obtained by the elementary equations Actual stress due to fatigue loading = Kf 0 Theoretical stress = Kt 0 Increase of actual stress over nominal stress = (Kf 0 - 0)

Increase of theoretical stress over nominal stress = (Kt 0 - 0)

q= Kf = 1 + q (Kt 1)

When the material has no sensitivity to notches, q = 0 and Kf = 1

When the material is fully sensitive to notches, q = 1 and Kf = Kt

Endurance limit

Design for Variable loading