Quality Tools and Process Mapping

Seven Basic Tools for Quality Improvement

Check Sheets Pareto Diagrams Flow Charts Cause and Effect Diagrams Histograms Scatter Plots Control Charts

Check Sheets
Check sheets facilitate systematic record keeping or data collection. Observations are recorded as they happen, which reveals patterns or trends.

Check Sheet for Manufacturing Problems

 Detect problems Areas to focus given limited resources Analyze products and processes

Pareto Diagram
Pareto diagrams help prioritize problems by arranging them in decreasing order of importance. In an environment of limited resources, these diagrams help companies decide on the order in which they should address problems.

 Horizontal axis represents categories of interest, for example, categories of defects. Vertical axis represents count (# in each category) data or percentage. A cumulative percentage line is also depicted. Categories are ordered from those which contain the largest count to those that contain the fewest.

Pareto Chart
Identifies the vital few from the trivial many.
Pareto charts may be constructed for different groups within a data set to determine the impact of the grouping variable.

Pareto Diagram for Defects in Transmission Gears 40

40

Percent of defects

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 A B C D

25 20 15
Code A B C D Defect type Chipping Surface finish Mounting Load bearing

Type of defects

Table 1-8 : Defects in Transmission gears

Defect Type
Load Bearing Surface Finish Chipping Mounting

Count
15 25 40 20

Example
Minitab Commands
1. Stat > Quality Tools > Pareto Chart . 2. Since the data table has the count by the type of defect, select Chart defects table. In Labels in, enter the column number or name, in this example C1. In Frequencies in, enter the column number or name that contains the count data, in this example C2. 3. Click OK.

Interpreting the Analyses

Chipping and surface finish defects comprise over half of all the defects ( in this case 65 %). With limited resources, the priority order to address problems would be chipping followed by surface finish, mounting, and load bearing, respectively.

Pareto Analysis
When defects in various categories have relative impacts that are significantly different cost data may be used.
For example, if a load bearing defect costs $100 to fix, whereas a chipping defect costs $20 to fix, the Pareto chart, in terms of cost data will be quite different.

Flow Charts
Flow charts show the sequence of events in a process. They are used for manufacturing and service operations. They can identify bottlenecks, redundant steps, and nonvalue-added activities.

Flow Chart for Incoming Order Processing

Order received Has purchase order for payment been received
Yes No

Wait until purchase order is received

Can order quantity be met from stock?

Yes

No

Produce according to specified demand

Check due date against lead time and set shipment date Package product Ship product Product received by customer

Cause-and-effect Diagrams
Cause-and-effect diagrams ( also known as the fishbone diagrams) explore possible causes of problems, with the intention being to discover the root cause(s). The main categories such as people, material, machines, methods, measurements, and environment are listed first. To move closer to the root of the problem, each cause would be broken down into sub-causes.

 Developed using a team or a group of people.

Identify the problem (or effect) that is being investigated. Determine the various causes ( and sub causes) that have an impact on the stated effect.

Benefits of a Fishbone Diagram

Better understanding of the process and the relationships among various components.
May lead to identification of root cause(s).

Identification of remedial actions.

Example
In the production of magnetic tapes, the uniformity of coating is an important product characteristic. A process improvement group is attempting to identify various causes that lead to flaws in the uniformity of coating.

Example
Minitab Commands
1. 2. 3. 4. Stat > Quality Tools > Cause - and - Effect . For each Branch or main cause, create a column and enter the sub causes in the data sheet. Enter the column name and number. The Label for each branch may be entered to match the column name. In Effect, type the brief problem description. A Title for the diagram may be input. Click OK.

Histograms
Histograms display large amounts of data that are difficult to interpret in their raw form. By providing a visual summary of the data, histograms reveal whether the process is centered around a target value, the degree of variation in the data, and whether the data meet specifications. A histogram also helps in identifying process capability relative to customer requirements.

 Horizontal axis data grouped in classes.

Vertical axis
Frequency Percent Cumulative frequency Cumulative percent

Minitab Commands
Previously described Graph > Histogram .

May select various Options .

Histogram of pH values of a mixture 15

Frequency

10

0 2 4 6 8 pH 10 12 14

Scatter Plots
Scatter plots show the relationship between two variables. They are often used as follow-ups to a cause-and-effect analysis to determine whether a stated cause truly does impact the quality characteristic. Help us decide to set a controllable variable to achieve a desired level of the output characteristic.

Example
We are interested in determining the relationship between the depth of cut in a milling operation and the amount of tool wear.

Minitab Commands
1. Graph > Plot .

2. Under Y, enter the column name or number.

3. Under X, enter the column name or number. Click OK .

Analysis of Results
Some idea of the relationship between depth of cut and the amount of tool wear. Here, relationship is generally nonlinear. For depth of cut < 3.0 mm, tool wear rate is about constant. As the depth of cut increases, tool wear starts increasing at an increasing rate. For depth of cut > 4.5 mm, tool wear appears to increase drastically. This information will help us determine the depth of cut to use to minimize downtime due to tool changes.

Control Charts
Control charts distinguish special (assignable) causes of variation from common causes of variation. They are used to monitor and control a process on an ongoing basis. A typical control chart plots a selected quality characteristic, found from subgroups of observations, as a function of a sample number (which represents the time sequence of events). Characteristics such as sample average, sample range, and sample proportion of nonconforming units are plotted.

Control Chart
Center line UCL ( Upper Control Limit ) LCL ( Lower Control Limit ) Quality characteristic versus sample number plotted

Variables
Quality characteristics which are measurable on a numerical scale. Ex. When a numerical measurement is obtained of characteristics such as length, weight, tensile strength, spring force, density, thickness of coating, and tube diameter.

Control Charts for Variables

X and R charts ( Charts for the mean and range)

X and s charts ( Charts for the mean and standard deviation)

X and MR charts ( Charts for individuals and moving range) Moving-Average control chart ( MA chart) Exponentially weighted moving average chart (EWMA chart)

Attributes
Quality characteristics which are classified as either conforming or nonconforming to specifications. Ex. Using a go/no go gauge, the length of a part may be specified as either conforming or nonconforming. A microchip may be classified as acceptable or unacceptable. Control charts for variables usually provide more information about process performance than those for attributes.

Control Charts for Attributes

Chart for proportion nonconforming (p-chart).
Chart for number of nonconforming items (npchart). Chart for number of nonconformities (c-chart). Chart for number of nonconformities per unit (uchart).

Special Causes
Not inherent in the process
Wrong tool Operator error

Major objective of SPC detect the occurrences of special causes quickly

Common Causes
Something inherent to a process Exists as long as the process is not changed Natural variation in a process Process under a stable system of common causes is said to be in statistical control Inherent variation in raw material from qualified vendor, vibrations of machines Management is responsible

Control Chart
Graphical tool for monitoring the activity of an ongoing process Quality characteristic plotted along the vertical axis Samples or subgroups (in order of time) plotted along horizontal axis

Control Chart
Center line Typically represents average value of the characteristic being plotted UCL Upper control limit LCL Lower control limit If points plot within control limits and do not exhibit any identifiable pattern process is in statistical control

Typical Control Chart

30
Quality characteristic value

25 20 15 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Upper control limit

Center line Lower control limit

10

Sample (or subgroup)

Process in Control
When only a system of common causes prevail. Special causes have been eliminated through remedial actions.

Difference Between Control Limits and Specifications Limits

Control limits are used to evaluate the variations in the quality characteristic (e.g. average diameter, average spring force, average thickness) from subgroup to subgroup. Each subgroup consists of a collection (e.g. five) of individual measurements.

Difference Between Control Limits and Specifications Limits

Specification limits are the permissible limits of a quality characteristic (e.g. diameter, thickness) of each individual unit. The specification limits determine whether an individual unit is acceptable or not with respect to a certain quality characteristic.

Benefits of Control Charts

1. When to take corrective action. A control chart indicates when something may be wrong so that corrective action can be taken. 2. Type of remedial action necessary. The pattern of the plot on a control chart diagnoses possible causes and hence indicates possible remedial actions.

Benefits of Control Charts

3. When to leave a process alone. Variation is part of any process. A control chart shows when an exhibited variability is normal and inherent such that no corrective action is necessary. 4. Process capability. If the control chart shows a process to be in statistical control, we can estimate the capability of the process and hence its ability to meet customer requirements. This helps product and process design.

Benefits of Control Charts

5. Possible means of quality improvement. The control chart provides a baseline for instituting and measuring quality improvement. Control charts also provide useful information regarding actions to take for quality improvement.

Control chart for proportion of nonconforming items

0.125 Upper control limit

Proportion nonconforming

0.1

0.075

Center line
0.05

0.025 Lower control limit 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Sample number