CEE 105 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY (LAB)

Spring Semester 2013 (Starting from 4th of Feb. 2013)

Instructor Room : : Assist. Prof. Tahir Aziz Khan A room equipped with multimedia facility / Geology Lab

Lab hours Lab Text-book

: Three hours Lab: Once a week : Lab Manual of Engineering Geology A printed book of COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT), Wah Cantt.

CEE 105 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY (LAB)

Reference-books: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Engineering and General Geology by Parbin Singh Engineering Geology For Civil Engineers by P. C. Varghese A Geology for Engineers by F. G. H. Blyth Engineering Geology by David George Price Foundations of Engineering Geology by Tony Waltham

Weekly Analysis of Engineering Geology LAB Syllabus

Week 1 2 3 4 Topics Identification of important rock forming minerals in a hand specimen Identification of important ore minerals in a hand specimen Determination of Specific Gravity of some common minerals Study of Igneous Rocks, Sedimentary Rocks and Metamorphic Rocks; First Assignment Study of some important Crystal Systems

5 6

Study of minerals included in Mohs Scale of Hardness; First Sessional (One hour exam)

Weekly Analysis of Engineering Geology LAB Syllabus

7 8 9 10 Study of Geological Structural Features Introduction to Geological Map Study of Geological Map containing Structural Features Study of Geological Map drawing the cross-sections and filling the data there in; Second Assignment Study of Geological Map containing Geotechnical Details Study of Geological Map containing Topographic Details; Second Sessional (One hour exam) Study of Core Drilling and Core Logging; Assigning a Project Work

11
12 13

Weekly Analysis of Engineering Geology LAB Syllabus

Study of Geological Map containing Core Logging Details 15 Field Visit / Field Study; Assignment to prepare Field Study Report 16 Submission of Field Study Report and Submission of Project Work 17-18 TERMINAL VIVA 14

CEE 105 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY (THEORY) Spring Semester 2013 (Starting from 4th of Feb. 2013)
2 + 1 Credit Hours (per week) = 3 Hours for Theory Lectures and 3 Hours for Lab (per week)

CEE 105 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY (THEORY)

Instructor: Assistant Professor Tahir Aziz Khan Room: Any room equipped with Multimedia Facility Teaching hours:1.5 hours Theory Lecture: Twice a week (Three hours Lab: Once a week) Course-book: ENGINEERING and GENERAL GEOLOGY by Parbin Singh Reference books: (i) Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers by P.C. Varghese (ii) A Geology for Engineers by F. G. H. Blyth (iii) Engineering Geology by David George Price (iv) Foundations of Engineering Geology by Tony Waltham (v) Essentials of Geology by Reed Wicander and James S. Monroe

CEE 105 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

COURSE OBJECTIVE The objective of this course is to introduce the students to Geology and Engineering Geology and their effects upon the designing and construction of Civil Engineering facilities and projects. Students will learn the engineering elements of rocks, minerals and various geological features and processes from the Civil Engineering perspective.

CEE 105 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

COURSE OUTCOMES: Upon the completion of this course, the student will have the good knowledge about: Rocks and minerals and their engineering properties. Various Geological Processes and Structural Features affecting the Civil Engineering designing and construction. Applying the Civil Engineering principles to: Soil and Rock Mass (mostly used in Rock Mechanics) and Discontinuities, Soil Foundations, Rock Foundations, Soil Slopes, Rock-slopes, Weathered Strata, Tunnels, Excavations, etc as used in Civil Engineering designing and construction.

CEE 105 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

SYLLABUS: Introduction to: Geology, Branches of Geology, Earth, System, Spheres and Zones/Shells of the earth, Geological History: Geologic Time Scale and Rock Scale. Minerals, Ores and Rocks, Types of the rocks and Rock Cycle. Geological Structural Features: Dip, Strike, Fold, Fault, Strata and Stratification, Joint, Fracture, Unconformity and their effects upon Civil Engineering designing and construction. Weathering and Erosion: Agents of weathering, classification of weathering, types of erosion, Erosion Cycle, land forms, mass wastage, formation of meanders and ox-bow lakes. Landslide, land-subsidence, rock-slide, and rock-fall.

CEE 105 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Glacier and glaciation: Origin, types, movement, erosion and deposition by glaciers. Earthquakes: Definitions, Technical Terms, Causes, Classification, Mechanism, Seismic Waves, Measurement of Earthquakes Intensity and effects of earthquake upon the designing of certain Civil Engineering Project. Volcanos: Formation, causes, nature and types, Eruption and types of eruptions, Geysers. Geological Surveying: Geological Surveying and Geological Investigation, geophysical methods and geophysical surveying at Civil Engineering sites.

CEE 105 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Geology of acquifers, wells, springs, streams, ground water and hydrological cycle. Importance and Role of Engineering Geology for Civil Engineering Projects and locating important building stones and other construction materials. Application of Engineering Geology to the Civil Engineering Projects e.g. Reservoirs, Dams, Bridges, Roads / Highways, Railways, Airfields, Tunnels and (while) Tunnelling. Tunnelling: Geological surveying for tunnelling before starting its construction, engineering geology, selection of lining of a tunnel, selection of the site and requirements for a tunnel.

Weekly Analysis of Engineering Geology THEORY Syllabus Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Topics Introduction to Geology, Branches of Geology, Earth and its system, Geological History and Time Scale Minerals, Ores and Rocks and Types of Rocks Geological Structural Features; First Quiz Continuing Geological Structural Features; First Assignment Weathering and Erosion Landslide; First Sessional (One hour exam) Glaciers and glaciation; Second Quiz Earthquakes; Second Assignment Continuing Earthquakes Volcanos; Third Quiz

Weekly Analysis of Engineering Geology THEORY Syllabus

11 12

13
14

Geological Surveying, Geophysical Methods and Geophysical Surveying; Third Assignment Geology of acquifers, hydrogeology and hydrology; Second Sessional (One hour exam) Importance and Role of Engineering Geology

Application of Engineering Geology to Civil Engineering Projects; Fourth Quiz 15 Continuing Application of Engineering Geology to Civil Engineering Projects; Fourth Assignment 16 Continuing Application of Engineering Geology to Civil Engineering Projects 17-18 TERMINAL EXAM

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION CRITERIA

First Sessional In 6th week = 10%

Second Sessional In 12th week = 15%

Assignments and Quizzes

Terminal / Final Exam Total Marks

= 25%
= 50% = 100%

Erosion Cycle

GEOLOGY
Geology is the Scientific Study of the Earth in some books it is synonymous to Earth Sciences and GeoSciences and in some books it is classified under Earth Sciences / Geo-Sciences. Geology Geos means Earth + Logos means Study, Reasoning, Science, etc. Geology deals with the study of origin, age, structure, materials constitution and properties of the Earth. Geology also deals with the evolution, modification and extinction of the surface and sub-surface physical features e.g. mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys, basins, caves, coastal and marine formations. Evolution: A gradual geological (or biological) process in which something gradually changes into different (usually more complex or better) form.

Common terms used in Geology

Extinction: A gradual reduction, loss, termination or disappearance of some thing or property; the term used in geology and biology. Geology includes the study of various physical processes (e.g. evolution, tectonic processes, etc), dynamic processes (e.g. wind, tectonic, volcanic, glacial, etc) and physicochemical processes (relating to or carrying both physical as well as chemical processes at the same time, as involved in metamorphism, magmatic phenomenon, earthquake, etc) taking place on and inside the earth. Geology is a fundamental or basic science like Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics and Biology; Geology can not be studied under the said subjects.

Common terms used in Geology

Tectonics: It is a subject of geology which deals with the physical processes, usually mechanical / deformational processes acting upon the earths structural features, usually going inside the earth. Tectonic: Concerned with Tectonics. Glacier: A huge mass of snow usually the slowly moving mass that moves over a land mass. Glaciation: Condition of formation of a glacier or of land getting covered with a glacier.

Common terms used in Geology

Metamorphism: A geological process in which a preexisting rock sinks down and buries deep inside the earth, subjects to the effects of chemical substances/processes (or very hot water containing the chemical substances) and very high temperature and pressure and get transformed into completely different type of rock with the entire different physical properties and chemical composition. Metamorphic, Metamorphosed. Epigenesis: Change in mineral constituents or composition and/or physical properties of a rock due to the external conditions/effects. Epigenetic.

Branches of Geology
1. Physical Geology: It deals with the study of various surface and sub-surface physical processes caused by the geological or meteorological agents whether external or internal (external agents: wind, rain, ground water, snow, etc), (internal agents: tectonic processes, volcanism, earthquakes, metamorphism, etc) which play an important role in producing the earth features whether surface or subsurface (surface features: mountains, plateaus, valleys, surface basins, etc), (sub-surface features are also known as Internal Structural Features or Geological Structural Features : folds, faults, strata, bedding, etc) and other changes. Disposition (arrangement, positioning, distribution, etc) of Rock-bodies, Water bodies, Earthquakes/Volcanos and Glaciers and their formations are also the study of Physical Geology.

Branches of Geology
2. Geomorphology: In the beginning it was classified under Physical Geology. Geomorphology deals with the study of features and formations of the land surface. The formation and evolution of the landforms with the lapse of time, are the advanced subjects of geomorphology. 3. Mineralogy: It deals with the study of formation, occurrence, aggregation (combination, accumulation, collection, etc), properties and uses of the minerals. Minerals are the building units of earth crust. Mineralogy is further sub-divided into three important subjects: (i) Crystallography: Study of formation, properties and structures of the crystals and crystal systems exhibited in the minerals. (ii) Optical Mineralogy: Study of the minerals on the basis of their Optical Properties e.g . and (iii) Descriptive Mineralogy: Explained in the following pages.

Branches of Geology
Optical Properties: Various phenomena/behaviours of light when it strikes at or passes through an object / medium. Examples of Optical Properties are: Reflection, Refraction and Refractive Index, Birefringence, Diffraction, Interference, Dispersion, Polarisation, Pleochroism, etc. Reflection: Returning of a wave from a surface it strikes at, in the same medium. Refraction: Slight deflection in the path and change in the speed of a wave while passing obliquely from one transparent medium into the second. Refractive Index: It is the ratio of speed of light in vacuum with respect to that in a medium under consideration. Birefringence: It is Double Refraction.

Branches of Geology
Diffraction: Slight bending of the light around the edge of an object, usually towards the darkness or zone of less brightness. Interference: A process in which two or more coherent waves combine to form a resultant wave changing the amplitude of the individual waves. Dispersion: Breaking up of a complex wave into its component parts according to a certain characteristic, usually the frequency or wavelength; mostly the breaking up of the visible light into the seven colours.

Branches of Geology
Polarisation: A phenomenon in which the waves of light or other radiations are restricted to travel in certain direction only, especially along the plane of vibration after they strike an object usually the transparent or translucent object (in case of light), owing to the orientation of the crystals of that object. Pleochroism: A phenomenon in mineral grains in which the grains appear to be of different colours when observed at different angles due to the polarisation effect. It is chiefly studied in mineralogy.

Branches of Geology
(iii) Descriptive Mineralogy: It is the mineralogical study based on the Mineral Classification: based on the radical constituent (e.g. sulfides, oxides, hydroxide, carbonates, nitrates, sulfates, chromates, halides, etc) or Mineral Categorization: based on the mineralogical constituent (e.g. olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, hornblende, feldspar, orthoclase, etc) of the minerals together with the properties and uses of the minerals. Other (less important) branches of Mineralogy are: Physical Mineralogy, Chemical Mineralogy and Biological Mineralogy.

Branches of Geology
4. Petrology: It deals with the study of origin, composition, distribution and structure of the rocks. Petrology is further sub-divided into: (i) Lithology (macroscopic details of rocks), (ii) Petrography (microscopic details of rocks i.e. of rock-grains), (iii) Igneous Petrology (iv) Sedimentary Petrology and (v) Metamorphic Petrology. 5. Structural Geology: Structural Geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock-units in the rock body or stratum with respect to their deformational histories. It studies the information about the history of deformation (strain) in the rocks and stress-field that resulted in the strain and geometries of the rock units.

Branches of Geology
6. Economic Geology: It deals with the study of occurrence and principles involved in the formation and accumulation of the Economic Minerals: useful minerals, rocks, various mineralogical resources e.g. coal, mineral oil (i.e. crude oil/petroleum) and gas, building stones, economic metals and non-metals, salt deposits, radioactive minerals and industrial minerals e.g. abrasives, electrical minerals, insulating minerals, refractories, etc. and their properties which help in the exploration and exploitation of these economic minerals.

Branches of Geology
7. Historical Geology: It deals with the study of past history and ages of various stages of earth. It mostly studies about the Fossils (remains of the ancient life). Historical Geology is further sub-divided into: (i) Paleo-geography (also known as Historical Geography): It is the study of the nature and features of the earth in the past geological time. (ii) Paleontology: It is the study of various forms of life existing in the past geological time and (iii) Stratigraphy: It is the study of deposition, formation, distribution and ages of various rocks especially the Sedimentary Rocks (types of the rock which are formed by the deposition and solidification of the materials in form of layers at and near the earths surface and in the water).

Branches of Geology
Sedimentology is closely related to Stratigraphy. Sedimentology is related to the study of sediments such as sand, silt, clay and mud, and the processes which result in their deposition. Geologists apply the knowledge of sedimentology to explain the geological history through the observations of sedimentary rocks and sedimentary structures. Stratification: Formation or deposition of layers of usually sedimentary rock or sedimentary deposit. Stratum (Plural: Strata): A bed of sedimentary rock or sedimentary deposit having approximately the same composition and physical properties throughout.

Allied Geo-sciences
i) Geochemistry: It deals with the study of chemistry: i.e. chemical properties and constituents of the minerals, rocks, deposits, strata, etc. ii) Geophysics: It deals with the study of the principles, processes, phenomena and methods of physics e.g. mechanical waves and vibrations, heat and thermodynamics, electricity & magnetism, sound & acoustics (used in SONAR), light & optics, radiations and radio-activity, radio-waves (used in RADAR) and x-rays, other electromagnetic and LASER radiations etc. applied to explore certain sub-surface economic minerals, oil & gas, water sources or certain geological features or to obtain certain sub-surface information or examine certain subsurface geological features or ground (to be used as foundation) or to solve certain geological problems.

Allied Geo-sciences
iii) Geohydrology or Hydrogeology: It emerged due to the interaction of geology and hydrology. Geohydrology or Hydrogeology deals with the study of geological aspects of ground water and deep subsurface water in regard to their occurrence and movement through the different strata and rocks. iv) Mining Geology: It deals with the study of geological knowledge used in Mining (Underground Mining as well as Surface Mining) and Quarrying, for the exploration, development and exploitation of the economic mineral deposits.

Allied Geo-sciences
v) CIVIL ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OR
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY: It emerged due to the interaction of geology and civil engineering works. Engineering Geology deals with the application of geological knowledge applied to the Civil Engineering Projects for the safe, stable and economic designing and construction. Good knowledge of Engineering Geology is very essential for the study of Building Materials / Civil Engineering Materials, Soil Mechanics, Earthwork, Geotechnical Engineering, Foundations Engineering (for the foundations of huge structures), Strength of Materials and for the designing and construction of Highway, Motorway, Railway, Runway, Bridge, Tunnel, Dam and Reservoir.

Allied Geo-sciences
Engineering Geology plays a vital role in the planning, designing and construction of safe, stable and economic construction. vi) Rock Mechanics: It deals with the study of behaviour of the rocks subjected to various loading conditions. Rock Mechanics is more engineering oriented than an applied subject or an ordinary science subject. But as the rocks are the geological bodies and behaviour of the rocks is practically controlled by the nature, properties and constitution of the rocks; therefore this subject includes full geological knowledge of the rocks. In Rock Mechanics, the applied load may be natural or artificial, static or dynamic. Similarly, the tests and measurements carried out while studying Rock Mechanics may be made in laboratory or insitu environment or combination of both.

Allied Geo-sciences
vii) Geo-mechanics: It deals with the study of the natural field of forces acting on regional or global level. Geo-mechanical studies include the forces acting on continents, oceans, mountain-ranges, basins, valleys, plains, etc. In some books, Soil Mechanics and Rock Mechanics are included / shown as the sub-divisions or subjects of Geo-mechanics. viii) Meteorology: It deals with the study of atmosphere which is an integral part of the earth, in all the aspects, physical, chemical and biological. About 50, 60 years ago it was thought that Meteorology was only concerned with the weather.

Allied Geo-sciences
With the advancement in the space and upper atmosphere research and development, the effects of atmosphere upon rockets, space-ships, satellites, etc became very important and hence Meteorology became the science of immense significance. ix) Oceanography: It deals with the study of all aspects of oceans. It is the youngest of all the geological sciences. Oceans play an important role as far as geological, industrial and military significance is concerned.

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
IMPORTANCE OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY:
Engineering Geology deals with the application of geological knowledge to the Civil Engineering Projects for the safe, stable and economic designing and construction. Fundamentals of Engineering Geology is very essential to have a competent Civil Engineering expertise. The knowledge and application of Engineering Geology to the effective planning, designing and construction of a Civil Engineering Project is considered not only desirable but also essential.

OBJECTIVES OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY:

i) It enables a Civil Engineer to understand those engineering behaviours, consequences and problems which are less or more geological in nature. ii) It enables a Civil Engineer to understand those geological knowledge and information which are very essential for the safe, stable and economic designing and construction of a Civil Engineering project.

UNDERSTANDING OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY: A Civil Engineer is neither expected nor required to undertake any geological study or investigation of the area for planning and designing purpose of a Civil Engineering work. However, he must be capable of understanding a geological condition, information and problem of an area and certainly capable of understanding of and critically discussing a geological problem or report with an expert geologist and obtain, rather implement the maximum useful geological information to that task or problem.

THE UNIVERSE
Stellar System Galaxy Solar System: Mercury, Venus, The EARTH, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. Three Important Parts i.e. Three Spheres of The Earth:

(i) Atmosphere: It is a gaseous part of the earth starting from the earth-surface and extending up to 700 km or even beyond. It makes only one-millionth part of the total mas of the earth. This gaseous envelope is held around the earth due to the Gravitational Pull of the body of the earth. It constitutes the mixtures of following gases (by volume): Nitrogen = 78.084% Oxygen = 20.946% Argon = 0.934% Carbon Dioxide = 0.033% All the other gases = 0.003%

Three Important Parts i.e. Spheres of The Earth: The above-given composition of the atmosphere remains uniform up to the height of 80 to 100 km. Atmosphere is further sub-divided into: (i) Troposphere (lowermost zone up to about 9 and 18 km above the poles and equator respectively; there is a drop in temperature of about 6 OC/km upward), (ii) Stratosphere (up to the height of 50 km, ozone layer {which acts as a natural shield against the ultraviolet rays of the sun} starts from the height of 9 km and goes up to about 40 km), (iii) Mesosphere (40 to 80 km; at 100 OC), (iv) Thermosphere (80 to 100 km above) and (v) Ionosphere (beyond 100 km; entirely composed of electrically charged ions). (ii) Lithosphere: It is a stony part of the earth; it is composed of solid materials of the earth extending from the earth surface down to the centre of the earth.

Three Important Parts i.e. Spheres of The Earth: Lithosphere comprises The Crust, The Mantle and The Core of the earth (these are explained in the following pages in detail). (iii) Hydrosphere: It comprises all the bodies of water occurring on or below the surface of the earth. Hydrosphere makes only 0.03% of the total mass of the earth. It constitutes about 75% of the earth surface by volume. More than 98% of the hydrosphere is made up of saline waters called oceans and seas. Lakes, ponds, springs, streams, canals and rivers are the other constituents of the hydrosphere. Huge bodies of frozen water in form of snow and glaciers are third components of hydrosphere. Water occurring in the pores, cavities and cracks of the rocks in the earth crust called the groundwater in another important part of the hydrosphere.

Hydrosphere
Another unique property of the water by which it is distributed around the globe is the phenomena of evaporation and condensation. Water evaporates from the land surface and oceans, rises and suspends in vapour form and appears as clouds, condenses in liquid form and rains down in form of rain. A part of the suspended vapours rises up to sufficient height, loses considerable energy and temperature, condenses in form of snow and when it can not be supported by the atmosphere, it snows down on the earth.

THE EARTH

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Our earth comprises three well defined layers, zones or shells: The Crust, The Mantle and The Core (the most usable term in this sense is Shell). Prof. Mohorovicic a Seismologist of Yugoslavia was the first person to discover these shells and co-related facts in 1904. The uppermost part of the earth is known as The Crust. (i) The Crust: It varies in its thickness from 75 km to 5 km. Its top-most layer is known as Regolith it comprises the loose, heterogeneous material covering the solid rock (known as Bedrock) in the earth and moon. Regolith is composed of soil, sand, loose rock fragments, volcanic ash, glacial drift (a material carried along by the currents of air, water, glacier, etc).

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

The crust is thickest 75 km under Mount Everest the highest peak of The Himalayas (situated in the north of Nepal) and has the same thickness under Chimborazo the highest peak of The Andes (situated in the north-west of South America). The crust is thinnest 5 km under Marina Basin (situated in Pacific Ocean in the far northeast of Australia). The Crust is divided into: (i) Mountainous Crust, (ii) Continental Crust and (iii) Oceanic Crust. Lower part or layer of The Crust is known as SIMA SI = Silicates + MA = Magnesium; it chiefly consists of the rocks which are rich in silicates of magnesium. The ocean floors are mainly composed of SIMA; therefore SIMA is called Oceanic Crust.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Similarly the upper part of The Crust is known as SIAL SI = Silicates + AL = Aluminium; it chiefly consists of the rocks which are rich in silicates of aluminium. The continental crust is mainly composed of SIAL; therefore SIAL is called Continental Crust. (ii) The Mantle: It is the second concentric shell of the earth that lies beneath the crust everywhere in the earth. It is separated from the deep crust by Mohorovicic Discontinuity known as M Discont. (whereas the mantle and the core are separated from each other by MantleCore Discontinuity known as MC Discont.). These Two types of Discontinuities (Mohorovicic Discontinuity and are Mantle-Core Discontinuity) are defined by the abrupt increase in the velocity of the Seismic Waves usually from 5.5 to 7.5 km/sec.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Mantle starts from M Discont and goes down to MC Discont. Mantle is 2,900 km thick, ultrabasic (it means highly basic: basic means an igneous rock which contains large amount of magnesium and iron but very small amount of silica. {Basic means an igneous rock which is very poor in silica}), high density which increases with the depth, and very viscous in nature. Almost all the important plutonic geological processes e.g. volcanism, seismic activity, orogeny, etc originate in the mantle. Mantle is further sub-divided into: Upper, Middle and Lower Mantle. (iii) The Core: It is the innermost shell of the earth. It starts from the depth of 2,900 km and extends up to the centre of the earth. The Crust is further sub-divided into: Outer Core and Inner Core. Inner Core starts from the depth of 4,800 km and extends up to 6,370 km the centre of the earth.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

The Core is supposed to be made up of mainly iron and nickel in molten form. SEISMIC WAVES: These are mechanical shock waves or vibrating waves travelling inside the earth, either generated naturally e.g. by an earthquake, tectonic movement, magmatic movement, volcanic or geyser eruption, tsunami, rock-slide, glacier-movement, etc or artificially e.g. man-made explosions carried out underground for the exploration of oil & gas, water source, testing the load-bearing strength of the ground to be used as foundation for a huge structure, rock-blasting, weapon testing, nuclear explosion, etc. Related Terms: Seismology, Seismometry, Seismometer and Seismogram.

SEISMIC WAVES:
Seismic Waves comprises three types of major waves: P-Waves Primary Waves or Elastic Waves; these are longitudinal in nature. These waves move onward in the horizontal plane in alternate compression and tension manner. S-Waves Secondary Waves or Shear Waves; these are transverse in nature. These waves move onward in the vertical plane in the wagging rope-like manner. T-Waves Tertiary Waves or Spherical Waves; these are spherical in nature. These waves move onward in the horizontal plane in spherical ripple-like manner those are produced in a pond. First two types of waves P-Waves and S-Waves move deep inside the body of the earth whereas the third type of waves T-Waves move at and near the surface of the earth.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

SEISMIC WAVES: P-Waves have the highest travelling velocity, therefore they are known as Fast Speed Seismic Waves; they reach earliest to the surface than the other two types of waves. P-Waves can travel well through the semi-solids and liquids; therefore they can penetrate the Core of the earth with very little deflection and less loss in penetration energy. Rayleigh Waves (named after a British physicist Lord Rayleigh a Nobel Prize holder) and Love Waves (named after a British mathematician Edward Hough Love) are the types of Vertically Polarised and Horizontally Polarised S-Waves (both types of waves are S-Waves), respectively.

Animated representation for the first two types of waves are given below (type the following web-address in the Address Bar, open the web-page and play their animation): http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/conten t/visualizations/es1002/es1002page01.cfm
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/Pwave.ht m http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/Swave.ht m http://www.yteach.ie/page.php/resources/view_all?id=p5_inten sity_wave_circular_spherical_plane_energy_power_intensity_a mplitude_page_5&from=search

Age of the Earth

At present, the approximate age of the earth as determined from Radioactive Dating method is between 4.5 and 4.6 billion years (this figure is believed to have a little error in its estimation). Geological History: The geological history of Earth began about 4.5 billion years ago when the planets of the Solar System were formed out of the solar nebula - a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun. Initially in molten state, the outer layer of the Earth cooled and formed a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterwards.

Geological History
Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the atmosphere. Condensing water vapours produced the oceans. As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years, continents formed and broke up. The continents migrated across the surface, occasionally combining to form a Super-continent, roughly 750 Ma (million years ago). Condensing water vapours augmented by the ice delivered by comets which produced the oceans.

Geological History of the Earth / Geologic Time Scale

The present pattern of Ice Age began about 40 Ma, then intensified during the Pleistocene (an epoch {an element of Time Scale}) about 3 Ma. The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thawing, repeating every 40,000 to 100,000 years. The elements or divisions of the (entire) Geological History of the Earth (also known as Geologic Time Scale or simply Time Scale) are given as: Super-eon Eon Era Period Epoch Age. There is only one Super-eon named Pre-cambrian. Super-eon (i.e. whole the pre-cambrian) is sub-divided into Eons; there are Four Eons. Hadean Eon (it is the earliest eon in sequence; it existed from 4.5 Ba {billion years ago} to 4 Ba), then Archean Eon (existed from 4 to 2.8 Ba), then Proterozoic Eon (existed from 2.8 Ba to 635 Ma {= 0.635 Ba}), then Phanerozoic Eon (it is the latest eon in sequence; it existed from 635 Ma to 0.012 Ma {=12,000 years ago}).

Geological History of the Earth / Geologic Time Scale

Eons are sub-divided into Eras. Phanerozoic Eon (which is the latest eon in sequence) is sub-divided into Three Eras: Cenozoic Era, Mesozoic Era and Paleozoic Era (Cenozoic being the latest and Paleozoic being the earliest in sequence). Cenozoic Era is sub-divided into Two Periods: Quaternary Period and Tertiary Period (Quaternary being the later and Tertiary being the earlier in sequence). Mesozoic Era is subdivided into Three Periods: Cretaceous, Jurassic and Triassic Periods (Cretaceous being the latest and Triassic being the earliest in sequence). Paleozoic Era is sub-divided into Six Periods: Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonion, Carboniferous and Permian Periods (Cambrian Period being the earliest and Permian Period being the latest in sequence).

Geological History of the Earth / Geologic Time Scale

Quaternary Period is sub-divided into Two Epochs: Recent Epoch and Pleistocene Epoch. Tertiary Period is subdivided into Five Epochs: Pliocene, Miocene, Oligocene, Eocene and Paleocene (Pliocene being the latest and Paleocene being the earliest in sequence).

Ages of Important Super-eon, Eon, Era, Period and Epoch

Age: Precambrian Super-eon existed from about 4.5 Ba (4500 Ma) to about 540 Ma. Phanerozoic Eon existed from 635 Ma to 0.012 Ma {=12,000 years ago}). Cenozoic Era existed from 63 or 65 Ma to 12,000 years ago. Mesozoic Era existed from 230 Ma to 135 Ma. Paleozoic Era existed from 650 Ma to 280 Ma. Quaternary Period existed from 2 Ma to 12,000 years ago. Tertiary Period existed from 63 or 65 Ma to 2 Ma. Recent Epoch existed from 12,000 years ago to the present time. Pleistocene Epoch existed from 2 Ma to 12,000 years ago.

Rock Scale or Formation Scale

Rock Scale or Formation Scale: Group System Series Stage Zone. In the Rock Scale, a Group is (considered) equivalent to an Era in Time Scale, System is (considered) equivalent to Period, Series is (considered) equivalent to Epoch, Stage is (considered) equivalent to Age. And Zone takes the name of that old famous locality or region in which that rockformation is situated.

Minerals, Ores and Rocks

Mineral: Definition: It is a naturally occurring inorganic (chemical) substance having particular physical properties (especially particular atomic structure) and characteristic chemical composition; minerals are found in earth, waters and animal and plant bodies. Properties of minerals: (1): Physical Properties: (i) Colour: It is a light dependent property of an object. Colour is an appearance of an object in the light usually when it reflects or emits the light from its surface. And colour is chiefly dependent upon the wavelength of wave of light. On the basis of colours, minerals are classified into one of these groups: Idiochromatic: Having the same characteristic of colour. having the constant colour due to the homogeneous mineral composition. Metallic minerals belong to this group.

Properties of minerals:
(1): Physical Properties: (i) Colour: Allochromatic: Having variable colours; variety in colours is generally due to the minute quantity of colouring impurity substances. Usually the non-metallic minerals e.g. quartz, calcite, etc exhibit this colouring property. Pseudochramatic: Showing a false or confusing colour. This effect takes place when a mineral is rotated in the hand set of colours in succession change or play of colour simultaneous reflection and refraction due to minute impurity substances at various locations in a mineral. Some particular phenomena concerned with the colour and colouring are: Change of colour: Some non-metallic minerals exhibit this phenomena.

Properties of minerals:
(1): Physical Properties: (i) Colour: Play of colour: Emission of prismatic colours upon turning about a mineral in light. It is caused by interference of light reflect from various surfaces / crystal-lattices in that mineral, e.g. diamond. Iridescence: Showing of rainbow colours (same as apprearing in a drop of oil spilt over water) due to dispersion and reflection of light, e.g. hematite, limonite. Tarnish: Change of original colours to some secondary colours due to oxidation of the surface of a metallic mineral, e.g. chalcopyrite. (ii) Lustre: It is genrally the shine of a mineral. It is intensity of reflection of light from a mineral surface due to (a) refractive index, (b) light absorption capacity of a mineral and (c) nature of light reflecting surface of a mineral.