Emerging Automotive Technology

Unit VII: Battery Technology

Syllabus
Introduction of Battery Lithium-based Battery Lithium-ion Battery Battery vs. other Power Sources The Future Battery Deep discharge and Rapid charging ultra capacitors

Battery
An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery in 1800 by Alessandro Volta and especially since the technically improved Daniell cell in 1836, batteries have become a common power source for many household and industrial applications. There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are designed to be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used multiple times. Batteries come in many sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

Battery (contd..)
Principle of operation A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half-cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One halfcell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. A separator between half-cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.

Battery (contd..)
The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinccarbon cells have different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the other hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

Battery (contd..)
Categories and types of batteries Batteries are classified into two broad categories, each type with advantages and disadvantages. Primary batteries irreversibly transform chemical energy to electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be readily restored to the battery by electrical means.

Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, restoring their original composition.

Battery (contd..)
Battery cell types There are many general types of electrochemical cells, according to chemical processes applied and design chosen. The variation includes galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, and voltaic piles. Wet cell A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Wet cells may be primary cells (non-rechargeable) or secondary cells (rechargeable). Wet cells are still used in automobile batteries and in industry for standby power for switchgear, telecommunication or large uninterruptible power supplies, but in many places batteries with gel cells have been used instead. These applications commonly use leadacid or nickelcadmium cells.

Battery (contd..)
Dry cell A dry cell has the electrolyte immobilized as a paste, with only enough moisture in it to allow current to flow. A common dry cell battery is the zinccarbon battery, using a cell sometimes called the dry Leclanch cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline battery. Molten salt Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as electrolyte. Their energy density and power density give them potential for use in electric vehicles, but they operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.

Lithium-based Battery
Lithium is the lightest of all metals, has the greatest electrochemical potential and provides the largest specific energy per weight. Rechargeable batteries with lithium metal on the anode (negative electrodes) could provide extraordinarily high energy densities; however, it was discovered in the mid 1980s that cycling produced unwanted dendrites on the anode. These growth particles penetrate the separator and cause an electrical short. When this occurs, the cell temperature rises quickly and approaches the melting point of lithium, causing thermal runaway, also known as venting with flame.

Lithium-based Battery (contd..)

A large number of rechargeable metallic lithium batteries sent to Japan were recalled in 1991 after a battery in a mobile phone released flaming gases and inflicted burns to a mans face. The inherent instability of lithium metal, especially during charging, shifted research to a non-metallic solution using lithium ions. Although lower in specific energy than lithiummetal, Li-ion is safe, provided cell manufacturers and battery packers follow safety measures in keeping voltage and currents to secure levels.

Lithium-based Battery (contd..)

The specific energy of Li-ion is twice that of NiCd, and the high nominal cell voltage of 3.60V as compared to 1.20V for nickel systems contributes to this gain. Improvements in the active materials of the electrode have the potential of further increases in energy density. The load characteristics are good, and the flat discharge curve offers effective utilization of the stored energy in a desirable voltage spectrum of 3.70 to 2.80V/cell. Nickel-based batteries also have a flat discharge curve that ranges from 1.25 to 1.0V/cell.

Fig. Typical energy densities of lead, nickel- and lithium-based batteries Lithium-cobalt enjoys the highest specific energy; however, manganese and phosphate are superior in terms of specific power and thermal stability.

Lithium-ion Battery
A lithium-ion battery is a family of rechargeable battery types in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge, and back when charging. Chemistry, performance, cost, and safety characteristics vary across LIB types.

Lithium-ion batteries are common in consumer electronics. They are one of the most popular types of rechargeable battery for portable electronics, with one of the best energy densities, no memory effect, and a slow loss of charge when not in use. Beyond consumer electronics, LIBs are also growing in popularity for military, electric vehicle, and aerospace applications. Research is yielding a stream of improvements to traditional LIB technology, focusing on energy density, durability, cost, and intrinsic safety.

Lithium-ion Battery (contd..)

Construction The three primary functional components of a lithium-ion battery are the anode, cathode, and electrolyte. The anode of a conventional lithium-ion cell is made from carbon, the cathode is a metal oxide, and the electrolyte is a lithium salt in an organic solvent. The most commercially popular anode material is graphite. The cathode is generally one of three materials: a layered oxide (such as lithium cobalt oxide), a polyanion (such as lithium iron phosphate), or a spinel (such as lithium manganese oxide).

Lithium-ion Battery (contd..)

Construction (contd..) The electrolyte is typically a mixture of organic carbonates such as ethylene carbonate or diethyl carbonate containing complexes of lithium ions. These non-aqueous electrolytes generally use non-coordinating anion salts such as lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6), lithium hexafluoroarsenate monohydrate (LiAsF6), lithium perchlorate (LiClO4), lithium tetrafluoroborate (LiBF4), and lithium triflate (LiCF3SO3). Depending on materials choices, the voltage, capacity, life, and safety of a lithium-ion battery can change dramatically. Recently, novel architectures using nanotechnology have been employed to improve performance.

Lithium-ion Battery (contd..)

Construction (contd..) Pure lithium is very reactive. It reacts vigorously with water to form lithium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Thus, a non-aqueous electrolyte is typically used, and a sealed container rigidly excludes water from the battery pack. Lithium ion batteries are more expensive than NiCd batteries but operate over a wider temperature range with higher energy densities, while being smaller and lighter. They are fragile and so need a protective circuit to limit peak voltages.

Lithium-ion Battery (contd..)

Types of Lithium-ion Batteries Similar to the lead- and nickel-based architecture, lithium-ion uses a cathode (positive electrode), an anode (negative electrode) and electrolyte as conductor. The cathode is a metal oxide and the anode consists of porous carbon. During discharge, the ions flow from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte and separator; charge reverses the direction and the ions flow from the cathode to the anode. Fig. illustrates the process. Li-ion batteries come in many varieties but all have one thing in common the catchword lithium-ion. Although strikingly similar at first glance, these batteries vary in performance, and the choice of cathode materials gives them their unique personality.

Fig. Ion flow in lithium-ion battery. When the cell charges and discharges, ions shuttle between cathode (positive electrode) and anode (negative electrode). On discharge, the anode undergoes oxidation, or loss of electrons, and the cathode sees a reduction, or a gain of electrons. Charge reverses the movement.

Lithium-ion Battery (contd..)

Common cathode materials are Lithium Cobalt Oxide (or Lithium Cobaltate), Lithium Manganese Oxide (also known as spinel or Lithium Manganate), Lithium Iron Phosphate, as well as Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt (or NMC) and Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (or NCA). All these materials possess a theoretical specific energy with given limits. (Lithium-ion has a theoretically capacity of about 2,000kWh. This is more than 10 times the specific energy of a commercial Li-ion battery.) Since 1997, most Li-ion manufacturers have shifted to graphite to attain a flatter discharge curve. Graphite is a form of carbon. It stores lithium-ion well when the battery is charged and has long-term cycle stability. Among the carbon materials, graphite is the most commonly used, followed by hard and soft carbons. Fig. illustrates the voltage discharge curve of a modern Li-ion with graphite anode.

Fig. Voltage discharge curve of lithium-ion

A battery should have a flat voltage curve in the usable discharge range. The modern graphite anode does this better than the early coke version.

Lithium-ion Battery (contd..)

Formats Li-ion cells are available in various formats, which can generally be divided into four groups: - Small cylindrical (solid body without terminals, such as those used in laptop batteries) - Large cylindrical (solid body with large threaded terminals) - Pouch (soft, flat body, such as those used in cell phones) - Prismatic (semi-hard plastic case with large threaded terminals, often used in vehicles' traction packs) The lack of case gives pouch cells the highest energy density; however, pouch cells (and prismatic cells) require an external means of containment to prevent expansion when their state-ofcharge (SOC) level is high.

Lithium-ion Battery (contd..)

Electrochemistry The three participants in the electrochemical reactions in a lithium-ion battery are the anode, cathode, and electrolyte. Both the anode and cathode are materials into which, and from which, lithium can migrate. During insertion (or intercalation) lithium moves into the electrode. During the reverse process, extraction (or deintercalation), lithium moves back out. When a lithium-based cell is discharging, the lithium is extracted from the anode and inserted into the cathode. When the cell is charging, the reverse occurs. Useful work can only be extracted if electrons flow through a closed external circuit.

Lithium-ion Battery (contd..)

Electrochemistry The following equations are in units of moles, making it possible to use the coefficient x. The positive electrode half-reaction (with charging being forwards) is:

The negative electrode half-reaction is:

Lithium-ion Battery (contd..)

Electrochemistry (contd..) The overall reaction has its limits. Overdischarge supersaturates lithium cobalt oxide, leading to the production of lithium oxide, possibly by the following irreversible reaction:

In a lithium-ion battery the lithium ions are transported to and from the cathode or anode, with the transition metal, cobalt (Co), in LixCoO2 being oxidized from Co3+ to Co4+ during charging, and reduced from Co4+ to Co3+ during discharge.

Lithium-ion Battery (contd..)

Electrolytes The cell voltages given in the Electrochemistry section are larger than the potential at which aqueous solutions can electrolyze, in addition lithium is highly reactive to water, therefore, nonaqueous or aprotic solutions are used.

Liquid electrolytes in lithium-ion batteries consist of lithium salts, such as LiPF6, LiBF4 or LiClO4 in an organic solvent, such as ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, and diethyl carbonate. A liquid electrolyte conducts lithium ions, acting as a carrier between the cathode and the anode when a battery passes an electric current through an external circuit.

Lithium-ion Battery (contd..)

Advantages and disadvantages Note that both advantages and disadvantages depend on the materials and design that make up the battery. This summary reflects older designs that use carbon anode, metal oxide cathodes, and lithium salt in an organic solvent for the electrolyte. Advantages - Wide variety of shapes and sizes efficiently fitting the devices they power. - Much lighter than other energy-equivalent secondary batteries. - High open circuit voltage in comparison to aqueous batteries.

Lithium-ion Battery (contd..)

Advantages (contd..) - No memory effect. - Self-discharge rate of approximately 5-10% per month, compared to over 30% per month in common nickel metal hydride batteries and 10% per month in nickel-cadmium batteries. According to one manufacturer, lithium-ion cells (and, accordingly, "dumb" lithium-ion batteries) do not have any selfdischarge in the usual meaning of this word. What looks like a self-discharge in these batteries is a permanent loss of capacity. On the other hand, "smart" lithium-ion batteries do selfdischarge, due to the drain of the built-in voltage monitoring circuit. - Components are environmentally safe as there is no free lithium metal.

Lithium-ion Battery (contd..)

Disadvantages Cell life: Charging forms deposits inside the electrolyte that inhibit ion transport. Over time, the cell's capacity diminishes. The increase in internal resistance reduces the cell's ability to deliver current. This problem is more pronounced in highcurrent applications. The decrease means that older batteries do not charge as much as new ones (charging time required decreases proportionally).

Internal resistance: The internal resistance of standard (Cobalt) lithium-ion batteries is high compared to both other rechargeable chemistries such as nickel-metal hydride and nickel-cadmium, and LiFePO4 and lithium-polymer cells.

Battery vs. Other Power Sources

The positive traits of the battery and the limitations when compared with other power sources are: Energy storage Batteries store energy well and for a considerable length of time. Primary batteries (non-rechargeable) hold more energy than secondary (rechargeable), and the self-discharge is lower. Alkaline cells are good for 10 years with minimal losses. Lead-, nickel- and lithium-based batteries need periodic recharges to compensate for lost power. Specific energy (Capacity) A battery may hold adequate energy for portable use, but this does not transfer equally well for large mobile and stationary systems. For example, a 100kg (220lb) battery produces about 10kWh of energy an IC engine of the same weight generates 100kW.

Battery vs. Other Power Sources (contd..)

Responsiveness Batteries have a huge advantage over other power sources in being ready to deliver on short notice. There is no warm-up, as is the case with the internal combustion (IC) engine; the power from the battery flows within a fraction of a second. In comparison, a jet engine takes several seconds to gain power, a fuel cell requires a few minutes, and the cold steam engine of a locomotive needs hours to build up steam. Power bandwidth Rechargeable batteries have a wide power bandwidth, a quality that is shared with the diesel engine. In comparison, the bandwidth of the fuel cell is narrow and works best within a specific load. Jet engines also have a limited power bandwidth. They have poor low-end torque and operate most efficiently at a defined revolution-per-minute (RPM).

Battery vs. Other Power Sources (contd..)

Environment The battery runs clean and stays reasonably cool. Sealed cells have no exhaust, are quiet and do not vibrate. This is in sharp contrast with the IC engine and larger fuel cells that require noisy compressors and cooling fans. The IC engine also needs air and exhausts toxic gases. Efficiency The battery is highly efficient. Below 70 percent charge, the charge efficiency is close to 100 percent and the discharge losses are only a few percent. In comparison, the energy efficiency of the fuel cell is 20 to 60 percent, and the thermal engines are 25 to 30 percent. (At optimal air intake speed and temperature, the GE90-115 on the Boeing 777 jetliner is 37 percent efficient.)

Battery vs. Other Power Sources (contd..)

Installation The sealed battery operates in any position and offers good shock and vibration tolerance. This benefit does not transfer to the flooded batteries that must be installed in the upright position. Most IC engines must also be positioned in the upright position and mounted on shock- absorbing dampers to reduce vibration. Thermal engines also need air and an exhaust. Operating cost Lithium- and nickel-based batteries are best suited for portable devices; lead acid batteries are economical for wheeled mobility and stationary applications. Cost and weight make batteries impractical for electric powertrains in larger vehicles. The IC engine costs less to build per watt and lasts for about 4,000 hours.

Battery vs. Other Power Sources (contd..)

Maintenance With the exception of watering of flooded lead batteries and discharging NiCds to prevent memory, rechargeable batteries require low maintenance. Service includes cleaning of corrosion buildup on the outside terminals and applying periodic performance checks. Service life The rechargeable battery has a relatively short service life and ages even if not in use. In consumer products, the 3- to 5-year lifespan is satisfactory. This is not acceptable for larger batteries in industry, and makers of the hybrid and electric vehicles guarantee their batteries for 8 to 10 years. The fuel cell delivers 2,000 to 5,000 hours of service and, depending on temperature, large stationary batteries are good for 5 to 20 years.

Battery vs. Other Power Sources (contd..)

Temperature extremes Cold temperatures slow the electrochemical reaction and batteries do not perform well below freezing. The fuel cell shares the same problem, but the internal combustion engine does well once warmed up. Charging must always be done above freezing. Operating at a high temperature provides a performance boost but this causes rapid aging due to added stress. Charge time The battery has an undisputed disadvantage. Lithium- and nickel-based systems take 1 to 3 hours to charge; lead acid typically takes 14 hours. In comparison, filling up a vehicle only takes a few minutes. Although some electric vehicles can be charged to 80 percent in less than one hour on a high-power outlet, users of electric vehicles will need to make adjustments.

Battery vs. Other Power Sources (contd..)

Disposal Nickel-cadmium and lead acid batteries contain hazardous material and cannot be disposed of in landfills. Nickel-metalhydrate and lithium systems are environmentally friendly and can be disposed of with regular household items in small quantities. Authorities recommend that all batteries be recycled.

Battery vs. Fuel Cell

The fuel cell as a propulsion system is in many ways superior to batteries, as it needs to carry less energy storage devices by weight and volume compared to a vehicle propelled by batteries alone. Fig. illustrates the practical travel range of a vehicle powered by a fuel cell (FC) compared to lead acid, NiMH or Li-ion batteries. One can clearly see that lead- and nickel-based batteries simply get too heavy when increasing the size to enable larger distances. In this respect, the fuel cell enjoys similar qualities to the IC engine in that it can conquer large distances with only the extra weight of fuel.

Fig. Driving range as a function of energy storage

Battery vs. Fuel Cell (contd..)

Although the fuel cell assumes the duty of the IC engine in a vehicle, poor response time and a weak power band make onboard batteries necessary. In this respect, the FC car resembles an electric vehicle with an onboard power aggregate to keep the batteries charged. The battery is the master and the fuel cell becomes the slave. On start-up, the vehicle relies 100 percent on the battery and the fuel cell only begins contributing after reaching a steady state in 530 seconds. During the warm-up period, the battery must also deliver power to activate the air compressor and pumps. When warm, the FC provides enough power for cruising, and when the vehicle is accelerating or climbing hills both the FC and battery provide power. During braking, the kinetic energy is returned to charge the battery.

Battery vs. Fuel Cell (contd..)

The FC of a mid sized car generates around 85kW, or 114hp. The energy is coupled to an electric motor with a similar or slightly higher power output. The onboard battery has a capacity of around 18kW and provides throttle response and power assist when passing vehicles or climbing hills. The battery serves as a buffer similar to the HEV and does not get heavily stressed by repeated deep cycling, as is the case with the EV. Hydrogen costs about twice as much as gasoline, but the high efficiency of the FC compared to the IC engine in converting fuel to energy gives the same net effect on the pocketbook, with the benefit of less greenhouse gas and reduced pollution.

The Future Battery

How much has the battery improved during the last 150 years? Compared to other advancements, the progress has only been moderate. A battery holds relatively little power, is bulky, heavy, and has a short life span. Battery power is also very expensive. The smaller the battery, the higher the cost-per-watt becomes. Yet humanity depends on the battery as an important portable power source. The speed at which portability and mobility is advancing hinges much on the battery. The better the battery gets, the greater our mobility and freedom will become.

The Future Battery (contd..)

The electric vehicle has failed to become the accepted mode of transportation because of the battery. Short distances between recharging and a limited service life of the battery are to blame. Consumers demand a battery that will last for the life of the vehicle but battery manufactures are hesitant to provide the mandatory 8 to 10-year warranty. More than 2,000 organizations throughout the world are actively involved in fuel cell development. There is a good reason for this - it's a great concept. And yet, since its invention in 1839 by Sir William Grove, the fuel cell has made little impact in our daily lives so far. In comparison, the internal combustion engine, a development that began at about the same time as the fuel cell, has far broader use.

The Future Battery (contd..)

The fuel cell was used in the Gemini space program in the 1960s, followed by trial runs in buses and cars during the 1990s. One of the main obstacles is high energy cost. The cost-per-watt must be reduced by a factor of ten to become competitive with other sources, such as the internal combustion engine. The improvements of the fuel cell during the last 10 years have been moderate. Attempts to mass-produce have failed, even though four public fuel cell companies in North America have raised over a billion dollars in public stock offerings from 1999 through 2001. Unlike other investments that paid early dividends from product sale, returns on fuel cell lies years ahead.

The Future Battery (contd..)

Fuel cell advocates are promoting a technology that is intended to replace the battery but the opposite is occurring in mobile and portable applications. The fuel cell has a defined power band in which it operates efficiently. Outside this band, the fuel cell loses effectiveness. Sluggish start-up when cold and limited loading are other limitations. Until resolved, the fuel cell will serve as the generator to charge the batteries that do the driving. There are also problems with the longevity of the stack. The membranes, the core of the engine, degenerate too quickly. The replacement of the stack is a major expense. Until these problems can be resolved, the fuel cell will be reserved for specialty applications, such as providing power (and water) for space vehicles and submarines. Here, no combustion is possible and toxic exhausts cannot be tolerated.

The Future Battery (contd..)

Experts believe that the fuel cell, as we know it today, would only be implemented in vehicles if the supply of fossil fuel is exhausted or if mandated by law due to environmental concerns. Comments have been made that the fuel cell may never become the engine of choice for mass-produced cars. Continuous improvements in the fuel cell are being made but the results are slower than with other technologies. Eventually, the fuel cell will find important niche markets that dwell outside the domain of the polluting internal combustion engine. Should a major break-through occur and the fuel cell does become an alternative power source, the world would become a cleaner place and humanity would be thankful for it.

The Future Battery (contd..)

The ultimate miracle battery is nowhere in sight and the battery remains the 'weak link' for the foreseeable future. As long as the battery is based on an electro-chemical process, limitations of power density and short life expectancy must be taken into account. We must adapt to this constraint and design the equipment around it. People want an inexhaustible pool of energy in a small package that is cheap, safe and clean. A radical turn will be needed to satisfy the unquenchable thirst for portable and mobile power. It is anyone's guess whether a superior electro-chemical battery, an improved fuel cell, a futuristic atomic fusion battery or some other groundbreaking energy storage device will fulfill this dream.

The Future Battery (contd..)

Battery manufacturers are tooling up for the electric vehicle, but what would happen if it failed? The US Department of Energy (DOE) has admitted that some critical parameters of Li-ion are not met. Newer NiMH batteries, which are cheaper and safer than Li-ion, are also suitable for the electric powertrain but these mature systems are often excluded from government grants for research. There are no ideal contenders for the electric powertrain, and lithium-ion remains a good choice. Out of the five candidates illustrated in Fig., Li-nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC), Liphosphate and Li-manganese stand out as being superior.

Fig. Batteries for Electric Cars. Challenges, opportunities and outlook for 2020

The Future Battery (contd..)

To reduce pollution and save on fossil fuel, governments are promoting the electric car. This done in good faith, but looking at Fig. we may come to realize that this may not be possible with present technology. Many readers will agree that the success of the car was made possible with very low fuel prices in terms of net calorific value. The notion of driving a large vehicle for long distances may not be transferable to battery propulsion, even with government subsidies. The battery is a weak contender against diesel and gasoline, and this is visible on the chart. Li-ion, the battery choice for the electric vehicle, is hardly visible on the horizon, and the 90 percent efficiency of the electric motor does not make up for the low net calorific value.

Fig. : Net calorific values of fuels with conversion efficiencies

Deep-cycle Battery
A deep-cycle battery is a lead-acid battery designed to be regularly deeply discharged using most of its capacity. In contrast, starter batteries (e.g. most automotive batteries) are designed to deliver short, high-current bursts for cranking the engine, thus frequently discharged of only a very small part of their capacity. While a deep-cycle battery can be used as a starting battery, the lower "cranking amps" imply that an oversized battery may be required. A deep-cycle battery is designed to discharge between 50% and 80% depending on the manufacturer and construction of the battery. Although these batteries can be cycled down to 20% charge, the best lifespan vs. cost method is to keep the average cycle at about 50% discharge, as there is a direct correlation between depth of discharge on the battery and the number of charge and discharge cycles it can perform.

Rapid Charging with Ultracapacitor

One of the major challenges for public charging stations is to reduce charging time, which can be addressed by increasing the rate of power transfer. However, when a large number of PEVs are charged simultaneously, problems may arise from a substantial increase in peak power. Addressing this peak power requirement may increase the generation cost of the energy as well as the cost of the distribution and public charging infrastructure. A charging station with an energy storage system that not only can reduce the charging time, but also reduces the stress on the grid can be developed. There are various energy storage methods and suggests the use of ultracapacitors because of their durability, high power density, and likely further improvements in energy density.

Supercapacitor
The supercapacitor, also known as ultracapacitor or doublelayer capacitor, differs from a regular capacitor in that it has a very high capacitance. A capacitor stores energy by means of a static charge as opposed to an electrochemical reaction. Applying a voltage differential on the positive and negative plates charges the capacitor. The capacitors are grouped into three family types and the most basic is the electrostatic capacitor, with a dry separator. The size ranges from a few pico-farad (pf) to low microfarad (uF). The next member is the electrolytic capacitor. Rated in microfarads (uF), this capacitor has several thousand times the storage capacity of the electrostatic capacitor and uses a moist separator.

Supercapacitor (contd..)
The third type is the supercapacitor, rated in farads, which is again thousands of times higher than the electrolytic capacitor. The supercapacitor is ideal for energy storage that undergoes frequent charge and discharge cycles at high current and short duration. The modern supercapacitor is not a battery per se but crosses the boundary into battery technology by using special electrodes and electrolyte. Several types of electrodes have been tried and we focuses on the double-layer capacitor (DLC) concept. It is carbon-based, has an organic electrolyte that is easy to manufacture and is the most common system in use today.

Supercapacitor (contd..)
The supercapacitor is confined to 2.52.7V. Voltages of 2.8V and higher are possible but they would reduce the service life. To achieve higher voltages, several supercapacitors are connected in series. Serial connection reduces the total capacitance, and strings of more than three capacitors require voltage balancing to prevent any cell from going into over-voltage. The specific energy of the supercapacitor is low and ranges from 1 to 30Wh/kg. Although high compared to a regular capacitor, 30Wh/kg is one-fifth that of a consumer Li-ion battery. The discharge curve is another disadvantage. Whereas the electrochemical battery delivers a steady voltage in the usable power band, the voltage of the supercapacitor decreases on a linear scale from full to zero voltage.

Supercapacitor (contd..)
Rather than operating as a stand-alone energy storage device, supercapacitors work well as low-maintenance memory backup to bridge short power interruptions. Supercapacitors have also made critical inroads into electric powertrains. The virtue of ultra-rapid charging and delivery of high current on demand makes the supercapacitor an ideal candidate as a peak-load enhancer for hybrid vehicles, as well as fuel cell applications. The charge time of a supercapacitor is about 10 seconds. The charge characteristic is similar to an electrochemical battery and the charge current is, to a large extent, limited by the charger. The initial charge can be made very fast, and the topping charge will take extra time. Provision must be made to limit the initial current inrush when charging an empty supercapacitor.

Supercapacitor (contd..)
The supercapacitor can be charged and discharged virtually an unlimited number of times. Unlike the electrochemical battery, which has a defined cycle life, there is little wear and tear by cycling a supercapacitor. Nor does age affect the device, as it would a battery. Under normal conditions, a supercapacitor fades from the original 100 percent capacity to 80 percent in 10 years. The self-discharge of a supercapacitor is substantially higher than that of an electrostatic capacitor and somewhat higher than the electrochemical battery. The organic electrolyte contributes to this. The stored energy of a supercapacitor decreases from 100 to 50 percent in 30 to 40 days. A nickel-based battery selfdischarges 10 to 15 percent per month. Li-ion discharges only five percent per month.

Supercapacitor (contd..)
Supercapacitors are expensive in terms of cost per watt. Some design engineers argue that the money for the supercapacitor would better be spent on a larger battery. We need to realize that the supercapacitor and chemical battery are not in competition; rather they are different products serving unique applications. Advantages - Virtually unlimited cycle life; can be cycled millions of time - High specific power; low resistance enables high load currents Charges in seconds; no end-of-charge termination required - Simple charging; draws only what it needs; not subject to overcharge - Safe; forgiving if abused - Excellent low-temperature charge and discharge performance

Supercapacitor (contd..)
Limitations - Low specific energy; holds a fraction of a regular battery - Linear discharge voltage prevents using the full energy spectrum - High self-discharge; higher than most batteries - Low cell voltage; requires serial connections with voltage balancing - High cost per watt