Nuclear Power Plants

Nuclear Power Plant Turbine and Generator

Nuclear Power Plant Turbine and Generator

Steam

Boiling water

Spinning turbine blades and generator

Nuclear Energy Powers 1 in 5 U.S. Homes and Businesses

Uranium Is Mined and Refined

Uranium Ore Uranium hexafluoride Gas Solid

Enrichment Concentrates the Uranium Isotope

Uranium Is Encased in Solid Ceramic Pellets

Fuel Rods Filled With Pellets Are Grouped Into Fuel Assemblies

Nuclear Energy Comes From Fission

Spit atoms
Neutrons

Uranium atom

Splitting Atoms Releases Neutrons, Making Heat

Heat

Neutrons

Heat Produces Steam, Generating Electricity

Steam

Steam produced

Generator

Turbine

Electricity

Heat

Controlling the Chain Reaction

Fuel Assemblies Control rods

Withdraw control rods, reaction increases

Insert control rods, reaction decreases

Boiling Water Reactor

Pressurized Water Reactor

Steam

Safety Is Engineered Into Reactor Designs

Containment Vessel
1.5-inch thick steel

Shield Building Wall

3 foot thick reinforced concrete

Dry Well Wall

5 foot thick reinforced concrete

Bio Shield
4 foot thick leaded concrete with 1.5-inch thick steel lining inside and out

Reactor Vessel
4 to 8 inches thick steel

Reactor Fuel Weir Wall

1.5 foot thick concrete

There have been two major accidents

There have been two major accidents in the history of civil nuclear power generation; Three Mile Island (USA 1979) where the reactor was severely damaged but radiation was contained and there were no adverse health or environmental consequences. Chernobyl (Ukraine 1986) where the destruction of the reactor by explosion and fire killed 31 people and had significant health and environmental consequences.

Power plant operation history

EVOLUTION OF NUCLEAR POWER

Enrico Fermi and the physicists designed and built the first atomic pile Chicago Pile 1 (CP-1). This pile consisted of a graphite structure through which channels were shaped to contain natural uranium metal and oxide. Removing neutron-absorbing impurities from the graphite and
fabricating the fuel elements were the major challenges faced by the metallurgists, notably John Howe and Frank Foote. That they succeeded was shown when CP-1 went critical on December 2 1942.

Generations of reactors
The first, called Generation I, evolved from the early demonstration reactors in the middle of the last century. The 103 commercial reactors currently operating in the United States and most of the commercial reactors operating in the world are Generation II

Chicago pile
ebr1_lg.jpeg

Argonne has always been

at the forefront of nuclear power research. Argonnes EBR-I, also known as Chicago Pile-4, was the fourth in the series of Chicago Pile reactors, which started with Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago. EBR-1 was the first nuclear reactor to generate electricity, powering these four 200-watt light bulbs on Dec. 20, 1951.

Operation of CP-1 was terminated in February 1943 and the reactor dismantled and moved to the laboratory's Palos Park site A. It was reconstructed using CP-1 materials but enlarged with a radiation shield and named CP2. It began operation in March 1943.

Early generation
The Chicago Pile (CP) reactors were small reactors which, in general, demonstrated new concepts or were designed for research purposes. Three reactors are Chicago Piles CP-2, the enlarged versionof CP-1, CP3, an CP-5 were heavy water reactors

CP-5 Reactor CP-5 was a heavy water, enriched uranium reactor which began operation at ANL-Illinois in 1954 . Its mission was to irradiate samples and provide gamma-rays and neutrons for the many research facilities at its ports and columns. It also supported nuclear education programs

Generation I: Shippingport, Pa., became home to world's first large-scale reactor in 1957.

Thermal Fission Reactors

The basic concept of a nuclear reactor is simple: assemble a critical mass of fissionable material and adjust its criticality to maintain a steady fission rate. But what should the fissionable material be? In a fission bomb, it must be relatively pure 235U or 239Pu. But in a fission reactor, it can be a mixture of 235U and 238U. It can even be natural uranium. The trick is to use thermal neutrons slow

Historical Perspective
Science and Law are often best understood in a historical perspective The regulation of nuclear power reactors involves science, law, politics and many other influencing forces A review of the development of science along with the regulatory framework is interesting and illuminating

Discovery of Nuclear Fission

James Chadwick discovery of the neutron (1932) Hahn and Strassman discovery of barium atoms resulting from neutron bombardment of uranium (1937) Frisch and Meitner using ideas from others develop the liquid drop model of fission to explain Hahn Strassman (January 1939)

Mass Defect
Splitting atoms was all very exciting and fascinating in 1939, but practical value? The observed nuclear mass is always less than the summation of the constituent nucleon masses This mass defect is embodied in the binding energy of the nucleus pursuant to E = m c2 (A. Einstein 1905)

Application to Uranium Fission

It can be shown that the binding energy per nucleon in Uranium is approximately 7.59 Mev/nucleon U-235 FPa + FPb + Energy The resultant energy from fission will be found to be approximately 200 Mev/Fission Combustion of Carbon atom results in an energy release of approximately 4 ev

Chain Reacting System

Even with the enormous energy release the reaction still needed a supply of neutrons In early 1939 it became apparent that a number of neutrons (2 to 3) were emitted per fission. A nuclear chain reaction was possible.

Neutron Slowing Down Theory

Using computers of the day (??) Fermi and others developed a neutron slowing down model Neutrons born at high energies Fission likelihood (cross section) changes in relation to neutron energy Neutrons slow down through collisions as they move through materials (loose energy)

Factors Affecting Chain Reacting System

Composition of Fuel Composition of Surrounding Materials Physical Arrangement of Fuel Physical Arrangement of other Materials Quantity of Fissionable Isotope in Fuel

Four Factor Formula

Simplified Algebraic View of Chain Reaction Material Potential for Self Sustaining Chain Reaction (Infinite Media) K = p f Average Number of Fast Neutrons Neutrons from high to low energy p Resonance Escape Probability f Thermal Utilization

Six Factor Formula

Simple algebraic representation estimating the chain reacting state of a physically real system Keff = K Pnlth Pnlfst P represents the non-leakage probability for either fast or thermal neutrons P represented by a formula largely dependent on physical geometry of system The solution of the relative geometric size values given certain materials will yield the critical size of the reactor Fermi and colleagues would undertake a famous experiment in this regard An important point: The systems self sustaining capability is not dependent on the magnitude of the neutron population

Moving from Subcritical to Critical Conditions

The previous discussion focused on a chain reacting system in a a steady state condition A physical reactor however must be assembled, and started up, hopefully not at the same time The concept of neutron kinetics or reactor kinetics is useful and fundamental

Basic Kinetics and Inhour

It can be shown, that the time dependent neutron population in a reactor is: (t) = 0 e (t/Tp) Tp is known as the reactor period or time for reactor power to increase by a factor of e. Reactor period can be estimated from certain changes in Keff These relationships demonstrate that Tp will establish a stable value shortly after a change in Keff

Basic Kinetics and Inhour

These relationships will show that for a certain range of Keff the reactor will be supercritical on delayed neutrons For certain large values of Keff the reactor would be supercritical on prompt neutrons (not controllable) Delayed neutrons come from fission products, some of which have neutrons in the decay scheme. These delayed neutrons enter the chain reacting system. This time delayed contribution to the chain reaction acts a natural control mechanism.

Inhour Approximation for Changes in Neutron Population

Neutron population is important because fission rate is proportional to neutron population Neutron population and fission rate starts low (at an artificial source level) By changing reactor composition (control rods) the population is allowed to increase (by several orders of magnitude) to increase power Control rods are re-adjusted to restore criticality and maintain constant power

Basic Kinetics and Inhour

Affects of Fission on Surrounding Materials

Fission Products deposit kinetic energy very near the site of fission. Potential for high localized heat production Heat must be transported from the fuel to avoid melting the fuel material. Following reactor shutdown, subcritical state, decay of fission products generate heat. Heat must be removed to avoid melting the fuel Fission Products may exist in gaseous state in fuel rods and represent a potential hazard Radiation from fission and decay products requires shielding of immediate environment (Particularly high energy neutrons and gamma)

Development of Modern Methods and Tools

Current nuclear analysis for neutron transport, radiation dose analysis and heat transfer relies on sophisticated computer models Typical neutron transport is based on neutron group theory or a modified version of group theory. Heat Transfer and Fluid Mechanics use various numerical methods solution techniques for Navier-Stokes differential equations. The four factor and six factor formula are largely only of interest from a historical perspective

Reactor Technology Development

Chicago Pile Number One First Man Made Chain Reacting System Chicago Squash Court Team led by Enrico Fermi Graphite blocks with Uranium Slugs in the blocks Taken Critical in December 1942 Operated a very low neutron flux (power levels) Crude safety features, no physical containment structure

Early Production Reactors

By 1943 Large Plutonium production reactors were under construction in the middle of the Eastern Washington Desert Design was large 28 by 36 foot graphite cylinder on its side Approximately 200 tons of small uranium plugs in aluminum tubes (1000) Approximately 75000 gallons per minute of cooling water flowing over the uranium inside the tubes for cooling Irradiate each plug for about 100 days then push it out to decay for about 60 days Plugs would go to chemical separation plants to extract Plutonium for first atomic bomb

Developmental Reactors
The Atomic Energy Act of 1946 as amended in 1954 established the Atomic Energy Commission to oversee weapons production and the development of commercial nuclear power A number of different reactor types were investigated in this early phase of reactor development The Nuclear Navy Under Admiral Rickover functioned under the AEC umbrella By 1950 the Navy had focused on a Pressurized Water Reactor Design for a propulsion plant Prototype PWR plant in 1953 Nautilus launches in 1954 The pressurized water reactors place as dominant reactor design is set

Shippingport
The first commercial nuclear power generating station Pressurized water reactor design based on naval prototype Ground broken in 1954 and generated electricity to the grid in 1958 Part of President Eisenhowers Atoms to Peace Program Concept of Fission Product Barriers as a Primary Safety Concept

Light Water Reactors

The United States 103 power reactors are all light water reactors The moderator/coolant is ordinary water There are two designs, boiling water reactor (BWR) and pressurized water reactor (PWR) The PWR is the dominant reactor design

Typical Pressurized Water Reactor

Safety Considerations in Early Reactor Designs

Defense in Depth and Fission Product Barriers
The fuel cladding The reactor coolant boundary Containment structure

An early AEC analysis of severe accidents raised concern over large scale fission product release Concerns in the public regarding atmospheric weapons testing became more pronounced Remote siting and engineered safety features as alternatives were debated in early decisions AEC at that time had a dual mandate, reactor technology development and reactor safety regulation

Development of Reactor Regulation

In the 1940s and 1950s a form of governmental entity was emerging, arguably as the dominant branch of government The administrative agency was becoming a major policy setting, law making, law enforcing entity Administrative Agencies typically have congressional delegations of power that allow rulemaking, adjudication and enforcement These powers are parallel to legislative, judicial and executive powers The emergence of administrative agencies is coincidental in time with the early growth of commercial atomic energy

The Atomic Energy Act

The 1946 Act created the Atomic Energy Commission coming out of World War II with exclusive control of nuclear weapons and nuclear reactor technology vested in the federal government. No civilian use authorized at that time. The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 established the legal framework allowing commercial operation of nuclear reactors The 1954 Amendment to the Act established a dual development and regulatory role for AEC regarding commercial reactors. The dual role of development and oversight became increasingly problematic over a period of years In 1974 the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 abolished the AEC gave the weapons production responsibility to ERDA and created the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The promotional role for government was largely abolished.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

The NRC is a typical Commission based administrative agency There are five commissioners, nominated by the President and approved by the Senate There is a Chairman of the Commission There is a professional staff of nonpolitical appointees (approximately 2000 now) The professional staff act in response to general policy direction of the Commission

Regulatory Framework
The NRC has authority to:
Promulgate rules Issue Violations and Civil Penalties Grant Licenses to Operate Reactors Suspend or Revoke Licenses to Operate Reactors Issue Orders Conduct adjudicatory hearings

Federal Agency Regulations are in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) NRC regulations are in Title 10 Energy (10 CFR)

NRC Regulatory Framework

NRC Staff and Commission Authority can be placed in two broad categories
Licensing Activities
Centered in Washington DC in the Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation. Maintain and Issue Revisions to Operating Licenses

Enforcement and Inspection Activities

Centered in Four Regional Offices with Resident Inspectors at Each Nuclear Power Reactor. Southeast Region (Region IV) is Headquartered in Atlanta

Key Regulations as Relate to Underlying Science and External Forces

General Design Criteria The GDC were developed in the early phases of licensing initial power reactors after the 1954 Act. Give objective criteria which licensees were to include in the design of facilities Criterion 10 through 19 (Under the General Heading Protection by Multiple Fission Product Barriers) examples
10 CFR 50 Appendix A

These fission product barrier regulations" reflect the scientific principles associated with the cladding, coolant boundary and containment vessel as engineered features

14 Reactor Coolant Pressure Boundary integrity standards 16 Containment Design

Siting Reactors 10 CFR 100.11

As noted earlier scientific analysis had calculated potential consequences of hypothetical accidents In addition, public concern arising mainly from weapons fallout emphasized the focus on public safety concerns As a means of addressing the issue a regulation and review process surrounding reactor siting was put into place Current Regulation is 10 CFR 100.11 Factors to be Considered When Evaluating Site

Meant to weigh and consider, actual site relative to population Engineered Safety Features

Sets radiation dose limits following certain postulated accidents Exclusion Area Two Hour Dose Limits Low Population Zone with same Limits for the entire period of the accident

Three Mile Island and Hydrogen Generation (10 CFR 50.46)

Approximately 4:00 am on March 28, 1979 an unexpected but non-emergency automatic reactor shutdown (trip or scram) occurred at TMI Do to a number of human errors and design problem a relatively minor operational event cascaded into a major core damage event Late into the sequence of events concern arose regarding an unanticipated buildup of hydrogen gas in containment Experts debated at that time whether the hydrogen gas could reach explosive levels Combustible levels did exist however the explosive concentrations and conditions likely did not exist (4% by volume in air) The hydrogen was generated from a high temperature water zirconium reaction. (Fuel clad is made of Zirconium) Normal operating temperatures of the clad during operation are approximately 700 to 800 F0 In the accident conditions at TMI the cladding exceeded the melting point of Zirconium and the temperature for rapid hydrogen generation

Three Mile Island and Hydrogen Generation (10 CFR 50.46)

The Accident at Three Mile Island was followed by extensive changes in regulations and regulatory oversight
Including the Promulgation of 10 CFR 50.46 (Acceptance Criteria for ECCS) Includes limits for peak clad temperature, maximum cladding oxidation and maximum hydrogen generation Which might result from loss of cooling accidents

Remarks
The nuclear power industry in the United States is extensively regulated by the NRC The Three Mile Island Accident had no documented health effects but resulted in a loss of public trust and led to significant improvements in operations, training, emergency planning and regulation The existing regulatory framework is largely a reflection of the initial development of reactor technology and science, political forces surrounding initial reactor licensing and the Three Mile Island Accident The technology is fundamentally sound from a public policy perspective
No greenhouse gases Cost competitive with coal for electrical generation Domestic Source of Energy with stable fuel cost

A NUCLEAR POWER REACTOR

Nuclear reactors
Most of these reactors use so-called light water technology : They are moderated (the neutrons slowed down to achieve an energy conducive to fissioning the uranium atoms in the fuel) and cooled with ordinary water. Other Generation II reactor technologies use other coolants and moderators;for example, many of the reactors in the United Kingdom are graphite moderated reactors cooled by carbon dioxide, and Canada's reactors are moderated and cooled by D2O, or heavy water.

Pressurized water reactor

Think of a Tea Kettle

The fission process creates heat which produces steam in a secondary water system. The steam turns a turbine - generator which produces electricity.

HOW A NUCLEAR REACTOR WORKS

Three Barriers to Contain Radiation

Defense In Depth
48 concrete containment building 35 concrete shield 8 steel reactor vessel solid nuclear fuel inside steel tubes

How Used Fuel is Removed

What Happens to Used Fuel?

Nuclear reactors split atoms of uranium which creates heat. This process is called fission. Uranium in a nuclear reactor comes in the form of ceramic pellets. Only one of the uranium isotopes fission, U-235. New fuel contains about 5% U235, the rest is U-238. When most of the U-235 has split, the used-up or spent fuel is stored in a large

Dry Cask Storage

At some plants, the pools have filled up. Some of the fuel that has cooled off, is moved into big concrete casks. Eventually, the fuel will be sent to a federal government facility for permanent disposal deep under ground. Spent fuel from San Onofre Unit 1 will soon be stored in this way.

low pressure turbine; 10 turbogenerator; 11 turbogenerator exiter; 12 capasitor; 13 water from river; 14 water heating devices; 15 feeding water pomp; 16 - cooling water pomp, 17 concrete defence.

low pressure turbine; 10 turbogenerator; 11 turbogenerator exiter; 12 capasitor; 13 water from river; 14 water heating devices; 15 feeding water pomp; 16 - cooling water pomp, 17 concrete defence.

pomp; 8 fresh steam; 9 quiring water; 10 high pressure turbine; 11 low pressure turbine; 12 turbogenerator; 13 turbogenerator exiter; 14 capasitor; 15 water from river; 16 feeding water pomp; 17 water heating devices; 18 concrete defence; 19 cooling water pomp

low pressure turbine; 10 turbogenerator; 11 turbogenerator exiter; 12 capasitor; 13 water from river; 14 water heating devices; 15 feeding water pomp; 16 - cooling water pomp, 17 concrete defence.

pomp; 8 fresh steam; 9 quiring water; 10 high pressure turbine; 11 low pressure turbine; 12 turbogenerator; 13 turbogenerator exiter; 14 capasitor; 15 water from river; 16 feeding water pomp; 17 water heating devices; 18 concrete defence; 19 cooling water pomp

NPP with high temperature THTR reactor with granular fuel:

1 reactor; 2 graphite reflector; 3 steel screen; 4 steam generator; 5 cooling gas (helium) ventilator; 6 concrete building; 7 regulative rods; 8 exite pipe of using fuel; 9 entrance pipe

low pressure turbine; 10 turbogenerator; 11 turbogenerator exiter; 12 capasitor; 13 water from river; 14 water heating devices; 15 feeding water pomp; 16 - cooling water pomp, 17 concrete defence.

pomp; 8 fresh steam; 9 quiring water; 10 high pressure turbine; 11 low pressure turbine; 12 turbogenerator; 13 turbogenerator exiter; 14 capasitor; 15 water from river; 16 feeding water pomp; 17 water heating devices; 18 concrete defence; 19 cooling water pomp

NPP with high temperature THTR reactor with granular fuel:

1 reactor; 2 graphite reflector; 3 steel screen; 4 steam generator; 5 cooling gas (helium) ventilator; 6 concrete building; 7 regulative rods; 8 exite pipe of using fuel; 9 entrance pipe

low pressure turbine; 10 turbogenerator; 11 turbogenerator exiter; 12 capasitor; 13 water from river; 14 water heating devices; 15 feeding water pomp; 16 - cooling water pomp, 17 concrete defence.

pomp; 8 fresh steam; 9 quiring water; 10 high pressure turbine; 11 low pressure turbine; 12 turbogenerator; 13 turbogenerator exiter; 14 capasitor; 15 water from river; 16 feeding water pomp; 17 water heating devices; 18 concrete defence; 19 cooling water pomp

low pressure turbine; 10 turbogenerator; 11 turbogenerator exiter; 12 capasitor; 13 water from river; 14 water heating devices; 15 feeding water pomp; 16 - cooling water pomp, 17 concrete defence.

pomp; 8 fresh steam; 9 quiring water; 10 high pressure turbine; 11 low pressure turbine; 12 turbogenerator; 13 turbogenerator exiter; 14 capasitor; 15 water from river; 16 feeding water pomp; 17 water heating devices; 18 concrete defence; 19 cooling water pomp

Sheme of 1st contour sirculation lupe of nuclear reactor vessel PWR (Westinghouse(a), Babcock & Wilcox (b)): 1 pressure stabilizator, 2 steam outlet on turbine, 3 stem generator, 4 main circulation pump, 5 reactor active area, 6 reactor core, 7 cooling

loop, 8 entrance of nourishing water from a condenser

General Information
BWRs were originally designed by Allis-Chambers and General Electric (GE). Only the General Electric design has survived. The first GE US commercial plant was at Humboldt Bay (near Eureka) in California. Commercial BWR reactors may be found in Finland, Germany, India,

BWR Major Systems and Components

(1) Reactor Vessel Assembly (2) Hydraulic Scram System (3) Emergency Core Cooling System (4) Pool Water

Typical BWR System

Typical BWR System

The reactor vessel serves as the boiler of the steam supply No steam generator No pressurizer Lower operating pressure (~1,000 psia) than PWR (~2,000 psia) The operating

Typical BWR System

General Information
BWRs were originally designed by Allis-Chambers and General Electric (GE). Only the General Electric design has survived. The first GE US commercial plant was at Humboldt Bay (near Eureka) in California. Commercial BWR reactors may be found in Finland, Germany, India,

BWR Major Systems and Components

(1) Reactor Vessel Assembly (2) Hydraulic Scram System (3) Emergency Core Cooling System (4) Pool Water

Reactor Vessel Assembly

Vessel Fuel Assembly and Control Rods Recirculation Jet Pump Assembly Core Support

INTRODUCTION TO BOILING WATER REACTOR (BWR) NE 113

Qiao Wu (Assistant Professor) Department of Nuclear

Typical BWR System

Typical BWR System

The reactor vessel serves as the boiler of the steam supply No steam generator No pressurizer Lower operating pressure (~1,000 psia) than PWR (~2,000 psia) The operating

Typical BWR System

General Information
BWRs were originally designed by Allis-Chambers and General Electric (GE). Only the General Electric design has survived. The first GE US commercial plant was at Humboldt Bay (near Eureka) in California. Commercial BWR reactors may be found in Finland, Germany, India,

BWR Major Systems and Components

(1) Reactor Vessel Assembly (2) Hydraulic Scram System (3) Emergency Core Cooling System (4) Pool Water

Reactor Vessel Assembly

Vessel Fuel Assembly and Control Rods Recirculation Jet Pump Assembly Core Support

Reactor Vessel Assembly

INTRODUCTION TO BOILING WATER REACTOR (BWR) NE 113

Qiao Wu (Assistant Professor) Department of Nuclear

Typical BWR System

Typical BWR System

The reactor vessel serves as the boiler of the steam supply No steam generator No pressurizer Lower operating pressure (~1,000 psia) than PWR (~2,000 psia) The operating

Typical BWR System

General Information
BWRs were originally designed by Allis-Chambers and General Electric (GE). Only the General Electric design has survived. The first GE US commercial plant was at Humboldt Bay (near Eureka) in California. Commercial BWR reactors may be found in Finland, Germany, India,

BWR Major Systems and Components

(1) Reactor Vessel Assembly (2) Hydraulic Scram System (3) Emergency Core Cooling System (4) Pool Water

Reactor Vessel Assembly

Vessel Fuel Assembly and Control Rods Recirculation Jet Pump Assembly Core Support

Reactor Vessel Assembly

Reactor Vessel Assembly

Core Thermal Power: ~3,500 MWth Vessel Diameter (I.D.): ~6 m Vessel Height: ~22 m Vessel Wall Thickness: ~14.5 cm to 16.4 cm Coolant: Water

INTRODUCTION TO BOILING WATER REACTOR (BWR) NE 113

Qiao Wu (Assistant Professor) Department of Nuclear

Typical BWR System

Typical BWR System

The reactor vessel serves as the boiler of the steam supply No steam generator No pressurizer Lower operating pressure (~1,000 psia) than PWR (~2,000 psia) The operating

Typical BWR System

General Information
BWRs were originally designed by Allis-Chambers and General Electric (GE). Only the General Electric design has survived. The first GE US commercial plant was at Humboldt Bay (near Eureka) in California. Commercial BWR reactors may be found in Finland, Germany, India,

BWR Major Systems and Components

(1) Reactor Vessel Assembly (2) Hydraulic Scram System (3) Emergency Core Cooling System (4) Pool Water

Reactor Vessel Assembly

Vessel Fuel Assembly and Control Rods Recirculation Jet Pump Assembly Core Support

Reactor Vessel Assembly

Reactor Vessel Assembly

Core Thermal Power: ~3,500 MWth Vessel Diameter (I.D.): ~6 m Vessel Height: ~22 m Vessel Wall Thickness: ~14.5 cm to 16.4 cm Coolant: Water

Reactor Vessel Assembly

ABB Fuel Assembly and Control Rod

INTRODUCTION TO BOILING WATER REACTOR (BWR) NE 113

Qiao Wu (Assistant Professor) Department of Nuclear

Typical BWR System

Typical BWR System

The reactor vessel serves as the boiler of the steam supply No steam generator No pressurizer Lower operating pressure (~1,000 psia) than PWR (~2,000 psia) The operating

Typical BWR System

General Information
BWRs were originally designed by Allis-Chambers and General Electric (GE). Only the General Electric design has survived. The first GE US commercial plant was at Humboldt Bay (near Eureka) in California. Commercial BWR reactors may be found in Finland, Germany, India,

BWR Major Systems and Components

(1) Reactor Vessel Assembly (2) Hydraulic Scram System (3) Emergency Core Cooling System (4) Pool Water

Reactor Vessel Assembly

Vessel Fuel Assembly and Control Rods Recirculation Jet Pump Assembly Core Support

Reactor Vessel Assembly

Reactor Vessel Assembly

Core Thermal Power: ~3,500 MWth Vessel Diameter (I.D.): ~6 m Vessel Height: ~22 m Vessel Wall Thickness: ~14.5 cm to 16.4 cm Coolant: Water

Reactor Vessel Assembly

ABB Fuel Assembly and Control Rod

Reactor Vessel Assembly

GE Fuel Rod
Fuel Pellet Diameter: 1.04 cm Fuel Pellet Height: 1.04 cm Fuel Material: UO2 Cladding Diameter (O.D.): 1.23 cm

low pressure turbine; 10 turbogenerator; 11 turbogenerator exiter; 12 capasitor; 13 water from river; 14 water heating devices; 15 feeding water pomp; 16 - cooling water pomp, 17 concrete defence.

pomp; 8 fresh steam; 9 quiring water; 10 high pressure turbine; 11 low pressure turbine; 12 turbogenerator; 13 turbogenerator exiter; 14 capasitor; 15 water from river; 16 feeding water pomp; 17 water heating devices; 18 concrete defence; 19 cooling water pomp

NPP with high temperature THTR reactor with granular fuel:

1 reactor; 2 graphite reflector; 3 steel screen; 4 steam generator; 5 cooling gas (helium) ventilator; 6 concrete building; 7 regulative rods; 8 exite pipe of using fuel; 9 entrance pipe

Sheme of 1 contour sirculation lupe of nuclear reactor vessel PWR (Westinghouse(a), Babcock & Wilcox (b)): 1 pressure stabilizator, 2 steam outlet on turbine, 3 stem generator, 4 main circulation pump, 5 reactor active area, 6 reactor core, 7 cooling loop, 8 entrance of nourishing water from a condenser


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BOILING WATER REACTOR

Fast Fission Reactors Thermal reactors require simple fuel and are relatively straightforward to construct. But they consume only the 235U nuclei and leave the 238U nuclei almost unaffected. Anticipating the day when 235U will become scarce, several countries have built a different kind of reactor that contains no moderator. Such reactors simple fuel and are relatively straightforward to construct.

Generation II: The Quad Cities Generating Station in Cordova, Ill., is a light-water reactor that is owned and operated by Exelon Nuclear

Not only are new reactors being built (though not in the United States), but a number of countries have banded together to develop a true nextgeneration nuclear system. This international consortium has studied designs for a new generation of reactors, and has selected six for further research. These designs promise better economics, greater safety, improved resistance to proliferation, and a more sustainable fuel cycle than nuclear power has known to date

Generation III
A more advanced generation of reactors Generation IIIhas been developed, but only a few have been built and operated, none in the United States. Three light water reactor designs (developed by General Electric, Westinghouse, and Combustion Engineering), have been certified by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. They could be deployed in the United States, but no company has come forward to build on..

Generation IV
The DOE(USA) began working to develop a significantly different kind of new reactor that would incorporate considerable improvements in economics, safety, and other matters. This new generation of reactors, Generation IV, would need strong international collaboration, and should have an international market.

SMALL REACTORS
Although large reactors have dominated in industrial countries, less-developed countries with limited grids and regions with dispersed needs may find that smaller reactors match their needs better. The small "battery" version of the lead fast reactor, in particular, is expected to be well-suited to limited infrastructures. The gas fast reactor,

SMALLER GRIDS
The gas fast reactor, very-hightemperature reactor, and sodium fast reactor are mid-size reactors that can also meet some of the needs of smaller grids. Some design concepts envision the sequential construction of a number of smaller units on one site to achieve an economic benefit through better matching of the supply with the growth in demand .

What is PBMR Main Components and Processes? The PBMR essentially comprises a steel pressure vessel which holds about 450 000 fuel spheres. The fuel consists of low enriched uranium triple-coated isotropic particles contained in a moulded graphite sphere. A coated particle consists of a kernel of uranium dioxide surrounded by four coating layers. The PBMR system is cooled with helium. The heat that is transferred by the helium to the power conversion system, is converted into electricity through a turbine The plant comprises (1) a module building with the reactor pressure vessel

COMPETITIVE WITH ALTERNATE SOURCES

If new nuclear plants are to be built they must be competitive with alternative sources of energy. One of the biggest disincentives is the high capital cost of new nuclear plants driven largely by the cost of complicated safety systems and the long construction period driven by traditional stick build construction practices which are very site labor intensive.

INNOVATIVE REACTORS

MPBR PROJECT Generation IV

Generation IV Features

Pebble bed characteristics

More about Pebble bed

MPBR Specifications

MPBR Layout

Cost comparison

EXPERIMENTS

MPRR FUEL

MPBR FUEL ANALYSIS

Fuel thermal model

Particle temperature

Example of framing

PBR WHOLE VIEW

Figure 5: Shipping Modules for Balance of Plant

Accommodation of thermal expansion

Connecting pipes details

SPACE FRAME CONFIGURATION

Figure 10: Overall Plant Structural Layout

COMPETITIVE WITH ALTERNATE SOURCES

If new nuclear plants are to be built they must be competitive with alternative sources of energy. One of the biggest disincentives is the high capital cost of new nuclear plants driven largely by the cost of complicated safety systems and the long construction period driven by traditional stick build construction practices which are very site labor intensive.

Modularity reduces cost

A new approach to building nuclear plants is proposed that is based on true modularity in which the size of the plant is driven by the ability to ship by truck (or train) prefabricated modules in space frames for legstyle assembly. The analysis performed to date and the experience integrated engineering And manufacturing of nuclear submarines in the United States strongly suggests that these techniques can be applied to land based nuclear plants.

SUBMARINES TECHNOLOGY
The analysis performed to date and the experience of integrated engineering and manufacturing of nuclear submarines in the United States strongly suggests that these techniques. can be applied to land based nuclear plants. This would allow smaller sized reactors to compete on a mass production basis versus traditional economy of scale large nuclear plants on at least three levels: cost of power, faster construction, less financial risk since smaller amounts of money are at risk for smaller periods of time.

SMALL SIZES
The small 120 Mwe size of these reactors allows them to be introduced in developing nations and allows developed nations to use these reactors to incrementally add capacity when needed quickly. Should these concepts prove viable, it could revolutionize how nuclear plants are built in the future.

Advances in thorium fuel

Thorium fuel

Thorium fuel cont.

Thorium fuel cont.

Neutronic performance

Spray system

Thorium fuel

Thorium fuel

Thorium fuel summary

Program for Development of Accelerator Driven Systems in India S.B.Degweker, P.Satyamurthy, P.K.Nema and P.Singh Bhabha Atomic Research Centre Trombay, Mumbai 400085 India

A roadmap for developing accelerator driven systems (ADS) in India was prepared in 2001 The first phase of the activities under the program began with the commencement of the tenth plan in 2002. This involves the development of a 10 MeV (upgradeable to 20 MeV), 30 mA proton linear accelerator, the setting up of a lead bismuth eutectic (LBE) loop for target

ADS in India
and coolant studies and a reactor physics program of developing necessary codes, compiling nuclear data, conceptual design studies of the sub-critical reactor and experimental activities. Actual ADS reactor design and development activities will be taken up in a later phase. Presently, India has a reactor running on HEU fuel viz., APSARA. There is a plan for refurbishing and converting its core to LEU. An advanced high-flux research reactor based on

ADS in India
LEU is also planned. Preliminary studies have been initiated to investigate the feasibility of coupling such a pool type reactor with an accelerator based neutron source and operated as an ADS. The paper gives a brief outline of the roadmap and a description of the status of various activities under the program described above.

IAEA STUDY

IV. LIKELY NEARER-TERM DEVELOPMENTS

Light water reactors

Aging management

Spent fuel storage

Will the nuclear energy be phased out?

Back end of the fuel cycle

Fast reactors ?

Proliferation resistant

Enrichment technology

Assessment of proliferation implications

The US role

US role cont.

Us role

Transfer of peaceful nuclear technology

Political realities?

Political realities?

Political realities?

Political realities?

Using power reactors to transmute Pu

Evaluation

Criteria met

Criteria met cont.

Non-fertile fuel

Toxicity

Dose reduction

A21st century pathway to advanced nuclear fuel cycles

PBMR COMPONENTS
Pressure vessel The vertical steel pressure vessel is 6,2 m in diameter and about 27 m high. It is lined with a 1 m (39 inch) thick layer of graphite bricks, which serves as an outer reflector and a passive heat transfer medium. The graphite brick lining is drilled with vertical holes to house the control elements.

Advanced Modular Design for pebble bed

PBMR
Graphite-moderated The PBMR uses particles of enriched uranium dioxide coated with silicon carbide and pyrolitic carbon. The particles are encased in graphite to form a fuel sphere or pebble about the size of a tennis ball. How does the PBMR fuel worK.

coolant
Helium is used as the coolant and energy transfer medium, to drive a closed cycle gas turbine and generator system. When fully loaded, the core would contain 456 000 fuel spheres. The geometry of the fuel region is annular and located around a central graphite column. The latter serves as an additional nuclear reflector .

PMBR PROCESS
Process To remove the heat generated by the nuclear reaction, helium coolant enters the reactor vessel at a temperature of about 500 C (932 F) and a pressure of 9 MPa or 1 323 pounds per square inch (psi). The gas moves down between the hot fuel spheres, after which it leaves the bottom of the vessel having been heated to a temperature of about 900 C (1 652 F). The hot gas then enters the turbine which is mechanically connected to the generator through a speed-reduction gearbox on one side and the gas compressors on the other side. The coolant leaves the turbine at about 500 C (932 F) and 2,6 MPa (377 psi), after which it is cooled, recompressed, reheated and returned to the reactor vessel. Why is the PBMR safer than conventional reactors

PMBR MODULAR REACTOR

PMBR

GAS COOLED FAST REACTORS

Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor System The GFR is a fast-neutron-spectrum helium-cooled reactor. The reference reactor is a 288-MW electric system with an outlet temperature of 850C using a direct Brayton cycle gas turbine for high thermal effi- ciency. A variety of core configurations are possible, including prismatic blocks and pinor plate-based fuel assemblies .

PHWR pressurized heavy water reactor

GAS COOLED FAST REACTORS

Lead-CooledFastReactorSystem
The LFR is a fast-spectrum lead or lead/bismuth eutectic liquid metal-cooled reactor with a closed fuel cycle. Options include a range of plant ratings, including a "battery" of 50 to 150 MW of electricity that features a very long refueling interval, a modular system rated at 300 to 400 MW, and a large monolithic plant option at 1,200 MW. (The term "battery" refers to the longlife, factory-fabricated core, not to any provision for electrochemical energy conversion.) The fuel is metal or nitridebased.

The Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor

The Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR) system features a fastspectrum lead or lead/bismuth eutectic liquid metal-cooled reactor and a closed fuel cycle for efficient conversion of fertile uranium and management of actinides.

LFR
The system has a full actinide recycle fuel cycle with central or regional fuel cycle facilities. Options include a range of plant ratings, including a battery of 50-150 MWe that features a very long refueling interval, a modular system rated at 300-400 MWe, and a large monolithic plant option at 1200 MWe.

LFR
The term battery refers to the long-life, factory fabricated core, not to any provision for electrochemical energy conversion. The fuel is metal or nitridebased, containing fertile uranium and transuranics. The LFR is cooled by natural convection with a reactor outlet coolant temperature of 550 degrees C, possibly ranging up to 800 degrees C with advanced materials. The higher temperature enables the production of hydrogen by thermo-chemical processes.

LFR
The LFR battery is a small factory-built turnkey plant operating on a closed fuel cycle with very long refueling interval (15 to 20 years) cassette core or replaceable reactor module. Its features are designed to meet market opportunities for electricity production on small grids, and for developing countries that may not wish to deploy an indigenous fuel cycle infrastructure to support their nuclear energy systems. The battery system is designed for distributed generation of electricity and other energy products, including hydrogen and potable water.

MOLTEN SALT REACTOR

Systems : Molten Salt Reactor The Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) system produces fission power in a circulating molten salt fuel mixture with an epithermalspectrum reactor and a full actinide recycle fuel cycle.

MOLTEN SALT REACTOR

MOLTEN SALT REACTOR

In the MSR system, the fuel is a circulating liquid mixture of sodium, zirconium, and uranium fluorides. The molten salt fuel flows through graphite core channels, producing an epithermal spectrum. The heat generated in the molten salt is transferred to a secondary coolant system through an intermediate heat exchanger, and then through a tertiary heat exchanger to the power conversion system. The reference plant has a power level of 1,000 MWe. The system has a coolant outlet temperature of 700 degrees Celsius, possibly ranging up to 800 degrees Celsius, affording improved thermal efficiency.

MSR
The closed fuel cycle can be tailored to the efficient burn up of plutonium and minor actinides. The MSR's liquid fuel allows addition of actinides such as plutonium and avoids the need for fuel fabrication. Actinides - and most fission products form fluorinides in the liquid coolant. Molten fluoride salts have excellent heat transfer characteristics and a very low vapor pressure, which reduce stresses on the vessel and piping.

SUPERCRITICAL WATER COOLED REACTOR

Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor System The SCWR is a high-temperature, highpressure water-cooled reactor that operates at the thermodynamic critical point of water (374C at 22.1 MPa, or 705F at 3,208 psia). The supercritical water coolant enables a thermal efficiency about one-third higher than current reactors, as well as a simplification of balance of plant because the coolant does not change phase and is directly coupled to the energy conversion equipment. The reference system is a 1,700MW reactor with an operating pressure of 25.

Supercritical water cooled reactor

SCWCR

SCWR
The Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR) system is a high-temperature, high-pressure water-cooled reactor that operates above the thermodynamic critical point of water (374 degrees Celsius, 22.1 MPa, or 705 degrees Fahrenheit, 3208 psia. )

SCWR
The supercritical water coolant enables a thermal efficiency about one-third higher than current lightwater reactors, as well as simplification in the balance of plant. The balance of plant is considerably simplified because the coolant does not change phase in the reactor and is directly coupled to the energy conversion

Generation IV
This long-term program, called the Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems Initiative, is designed as a substantial research and development effort. Its goal is to develop a new generation of reactor systems to be available between 2010 and 2030. This program is integrated with several other initiatives in the DOE, and therefore can be regarded as not just a reactor development program, but rather a program to develop a full nuclear energy system, and to meet the need for energy in many forms.

GIF
A very important element of the Generation IV program is the international nature of the effort. The Generation IV International Forum (GIF) currently made up of Argentina, Brazil, Canada, France, Japan, South Africa, South Korea, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United Stateshas developed common evaluation criteria ,

GIV continued
identified all potential designs, and used the criteria to select the most promising designs for further development. More than 100 technical experts, drawn from all the GIF countries, as well as from the international bodies such as the Nuclear Energy Agency of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the International Atomic Energy Agency, and the European Union, were involved in this activity

Some 100 different reactor designs were identified and evaluated. The

GIF continued

designs ranged from ones that were really Generation III+ to a few that were radically different from known technologies. Some of the more speculative designssuch as a concept involving a gaseous-core reactor and a concept involving direct conversion of the thermal energy of the reactor to electricity, without the need for a turbine would likely exceed the development period considered to be the bounds for a Generation IV reactor, and

GIF continued
The designs were judged on the basis of sustainability, safety and reliability, economics, and proliferation and security. Sustainable systems, for instance, would use fuel effectively and address the longterm burden of nuclear waste. Designs were judged on their economic potential by looking not only for a life cycle cost advantage over other sources of energy but also a level of financial risk comparable to other energy investments. And in an age of increasing concern about terrorism and nuclear weapons

SFR
IV Technology : Systems : SodiumCooled Fast Reactor The Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) system features a fastspectrum, sodium-cooled reactor and a closed fuel cycle for efficient management of actinides and conversion of fertile uranium.

SODIUM COOLED FAST REACTOR

SFR continued
supported by a fuel cycle based upon advanced aqueous processing at a central location serving a number of reactors. The outlet temperature is approximately 550 degrees Celsius for both . The SFR is designed for management of high-level wastes and, in particular, management of plutonium and other actinides. Important safety features of the system include a long thermal response time, a large margin to coolant boiling, a primary system that operates near atmospheric pressure, and intermediate sodium system between the radioactive sodium in the

SFR continued
The fuel cycle employs a full actinide recycle with two major options: One is an intermediate size (150 to 600 MWe) sodium-cooled reactor with uraniumplutonium-minor-actinide-zirconium metal alloy fuel, supported by a fuel cycle based on pyrometallurgical processing in facilities integrated with the reactor. The second is a medium to large (500 to 1,500 MWe) sodium-cooled reactor with mixed uranium-plutonium oxide fuel, supported

SFR continued
Supported by a fuel cycle based upon advanced aqueous processing at a central location serving a number of reactors. The outlet temperature is approximately 550 degrees Celsius for both . The SFR is designed for management of high-level wastes and, in particular, management of plutonium and other actinides. Important safety features of the system include a long thermal response time, a large margin to coolant boiling, a primary system that operates near atmospheric pressure.

SFR continued
and intermediate sodium system between the radioactive sodium in the primary system and the water and steam in the power plant. With innovations to reduce capital cost, the SFR can serve markets for electricity. The SFR's fast spectrum also makes it possible to use available fissile and fertile materials (including depleted uranium) considerably more efficiently than thermal spectrum reactors with once-through fuel cycles.

VERY HIGH TEMPERATURE REACTOR

The Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR) is a graphite-moderated, helium-cooled reactor with a thermal neutron spectrum. The VHTR is designed to be a highefficiency system, which can supply electricity and process heat to a broad spectrum of high-temperature and energy-intensive processes.

VHTR continued
The reference reactor is a 600 MWth core connected to an intermediate heat exchanger to deliver process heat. The reactor core can be a prismatic block core or a pebble-bed core according to the fuel particles assembly. Fuel particles are coated with successive material layers, high temperature resistant, then formed either into fuel compacts embedded in graphite block for the prismatic block-type core reactor

VHTR continued
or formed into graphite coated pebbles. The reactor supplies heat with core outlet temperatures up to 1,000 degrees Celsius, which enables such applications as hydrogen production or process heat for the petrochemical industry. As a nuclear heat application, hydrogen can be efficiently produced from only heat and water by using thermochemical iodinesulfur process, or high temperature electrolysis process or with additional natural gas by applying the steam reformer technology .

VHTR continued
Thus, the VHTR offers a efficiency electricity production and a broad range of process heat applications, while retaining the desirable safety characteristics in normal as well as off-normal events. Solutions to adequate waste management will be developed. The basic technology for the VHTR has been well established in former High Temperature Gas Reactors plants, such as the US Fort Saint Vrain and Peach Bottom prototypes, and the German AVR and THTR prototypes high- .

VHTR continued
The technology is being advanced through near or medium term projects lead by several plant vendors and national laboratories, such as: PBMR, GTHTR300C, ANTARES, NHDD, GT-MHR and NGNP in South Africa, Japan, France, South Korea and the United States. Experimental reactors: HTTR (Japan, 30 MWth) and HTR-10 (China, 10 MWth) support the advanced concept development, and the cogeneration of electricity and nuclear heat application .

VERY HIGH TEMPERATURE REACTOR

Latest in GIF
February 22 2006 Generation IV International Forum signs agreement to collaborate on sodium-cooled fast reactors In an official press release the US Department of Energy the United States announced that it has signed a sodiumcooled fast reactor systems arrangement with France and Japan. This agreement provides the framework for collaboration among these countries on the research and development of these advanced nuclear reactors. The signing of the agreement took place on February 16, 2006.

August 2005-21
In an official press release on 31 August 2005 ,the Korean government announced that it has forwarded its formal accession instrument to the Framework Agreement for International Collaboration on Research and Development of Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems to the Depositary. Korea has Ministry of Science and Technology Korea Science and Engineering Foundation (KOSEF) and the Korea Science as its implementing agents.

13 APRIL 2005
The Swiss government has acceded to the Framework Agreement for International Collaboration on Research and Development of Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems ,it was announced on 13 April 2005. Switzerland's participation in the GIF will be undertaken by its implementing agent the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI), with particular interest in the Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor( GFR )and Very-High-Temperature Reactor( VHTR ) reactor systems. The costs of the PSI research on Generation IV systems will be met out of its existing budget .

Research Reactors
Many of the world's nuclear reactors are used for research and training, materials testing, or the production of radioisotopes for medicine and industry . These are much smaller than power reactors or those propelling ships, and many are on university campuses . There are about 280 such reactors operating, in 56 countries .

Research Reactors
Some operate with high-enriched uranium fuel, and international efforts are underway to substitute low-enriched fuel .

Research Reactors
Research reactors comprise a wide range of civil and commercial nuclear reactors which are generally not used for power generation. The primary purpose of research reactors is to provide a neutron source for research and other purposes. Their output (neutron beams) can have different characteristics depending on use. They are small relative to power reactors whose primary function is to produce heat to make electricity

RESEARCH REACTORS
Research reactors are simpler than power reactors and operate at lower temperatures. They need far less fuel, and far less fission products build up as the fuel is used. On the other hand, their fuel requires more highly enriched uranium, typically up to 20% U235, although some older ones use 93% U235. They also have a very high power density in the core, which requires special design features. Like power reactors, the core needs cooling, and usually a moderator is required to slow down the neutrons and enhance fission. As neutron production is their main function, most research reactors also need a reflector to reduce neutron loss from the core .

Types of research reactors

Types of research reactors There is a much wider array of designs in use for research reactors than for power reactors, where 80% of the world's of two types.

Types of research reactors

A common design (67 units) is the pool type reactor, where the core is a cluster of fuel elements sitting in a large pool of water. Among the fuel elements are control rods and empty channels for experimental materials. Each element comprises several (e.g. 18) curved aluminium-clad fuel plates in a vertical box. The water both moderates and cools the reactor, and graphite or beryllium is generally used for the reflector, although other materials may also be used. Apertures to access the neutron beams are set in the wall of the pool. Tank type research reactors (32 units) are similar, except that cooling is more active

Types of research reactors

The TRIGA reactor is another common design (40 units). The core consists of 60100 cylindrical fuel elements about 36 mm diameter with aluminium cladding enclosing a mixture of uranium fuel and zirconium hydride (as moderator). It sits in a pool of water and generally uses graphite or beryllium as a reflector. This kind of reactor can safely be pulsed to very high power levels (e.g. 25,000 MW) for fractions of a second. Its fuel gives the TRIGA a very strong negative temperature coefficient, and the rapid increase in power is quickly cut short by a negative reactivity effect of the hydride moderator .

Research reactor types

Other designs are moderated by heavy water (12 units) or graphite. A few are fast reactors, which require no moderator and can use a mixture of uranium and plutonium as fuel. Homogenous type reactors have a core comprising a solution of uranium salts as a liquid, contained in a tank about 300 mm diameter. The simple design made them popular early on, but only five are now operating .

Small Nuclear Power Reactors

There is revival of interest in small and simpler units for generating electricity from nuclear power, and for process heat . The technologies involved are very diverse The interest is driven both by a desire to reduce capital costs and to provide power away from main grid systems .

Small nuclear power reactors

Today, due partly to the high capital cost of large power reactors generating electricity via the steam cycle and partly to consideration of public perception, there is a move to develop smaller units. These may be built independently or as modules in a larger complex, with capacity added incrementally as required. Economies of scale are provided by the numbers produced. There are also moves to develop small units for remote sites. The IAEA defines "small" as under 300 MWe

Small power reactors

The most prominent modular project is the South African-led consortium developing the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor of of 170 MWe. Chinergy is preparing to build a similar unit, the 195 MWe HTR-PM in China. A US-led group is developing another design with 285 MWe modules. Both drive gas turbines directly, using helium as a coolant and operating at very high temperatures. They build on the experience of several innovative reactors in the 1960s and 1970s

Small power reactor

The International Reactor Innovative & Secure IRIS )is being developed by Westinghouse) as an advanced 3rd generation reactor. IRIS-50 is a modular 50 MWe or more pressurised water reactor with integral primary coolant system and circulation by convection. Fuel is similar to present LWRs. Enrichment is 5% with burnable poison and fuelling interval of 5 years (or longer with higher enrichment). IRIS-50 could be deployed this decade.

Accelerator-driven Nuclear Energy

Powerful accelerators can produce neutrons by spallation . This process may be linked to conventional nuclear reactor technology in Accelerator-Driven Systems (ADS) to transmute heavy isotopes in spent nuclear fuel into shorter-lived fission products . There is also increasing interest in the application of ADS to running subcritical nuclear reactors, powered by thorium .

Thank you

slow moving neutrons that have only the kinetic energy associated with the local temperature.In a fission bomb, 238U is a serious problem because it captures the fast moving neutrons emitted by fissioning 235U nuclei. Natural uranium cant sustain a chain reaction because its many 238U nuclei gobble up most of the fast moving neutrons before they can induce fissions in the rare 235U nuclei. . The uranium must be enriched, so that it contains more than the natural abundance of 235U. But slow moving neutrons have a different experience as they travel through natural uranium. For complicated reasons, the 235U nuclei seek ou slow moving neutrons and capture them with unusual efficiency. 235U nuclei are so