Basic Aerodynamics & Theory of Flight

By Ahmad Ahsan

The Wings

The ratio of the overall wing span (length) to the average chord (width) is known as its aspect ratio. Simple experiments confirmed that high aspect ratio wings produced a better ratio of lift to drag than short ones for flight at subsonic speeds.

The Wings

High aspect ratio wings have a good ratio of lift to drag, they are used on aircraft intended for long range or endurance. Very low aspect ratio wings, such as those of Concorde, produce less drag in supersonic flight

Lift Generation by Wings

The wing produces a circulatory effect; behaving like a vortex English engineer F. W. Lanchester reasoned that if a wing or lifting surface acts like a vortex A theory of vortex behaviour indicated that a vortex could only persist if it either terminated in a wall at each end, or formed a closed ring More lift = strong vortices Danger behind large aircraft Turbulence Flow downward and outward. Bernoullis

Lift Generation by Wings

From Bernoullis equation, we can relate pressure and speed of the air. The air speed in the centre of the vortex is high and the pressure is low. The low pressure at the centre is accompanied by a low temperature. This causes any water vapour in the air tends to condense and become visible in the centre of the trailing vortex lines, The vapour trails frequently seen behind high-flying aircraft are normally formed by condensation of the water vapour from the engine exhausts, and

Span wise flow

Vortices

Wingtip vortices are circular patterns of rotating air left behind a wing as it generates lift The wing's main purpose in life is to produce a pressure difference between the top and bottom surfaces. The contours of the wing force air to accelerate over the top surface, dropping pressure relative to the bottom, and providing a net upward force on the airplane, allowing it to fly. At the wingtips, high-pressure air on the bottom spills over to the top surface, swirling around in a horizontal vortex at each wingtip. The vortex influences the air travelling over to the wing, pushing it down and reducing the lift.

Vorticesthat the tip of the wing curved up for the last few feet instead. Suppose

There would still be some pressure difference between the outboard and inboard sides of the wingtip (or winglet), but since the vertical section itself isn't producing lift, it would be less than in the winglet-free case. Wingtip vorticies are less intense and further away from the main, lifting, section of the wing when winglets are present, boosting wing lift and allowing an airplane to carry more payload further for the same size wings. the airplane now has to carry two surfaces that weigh something and add some drag. The optimum size winglet is that which properly balances the drag reduction from moving tip vortices away from the wings with the drag increase from the extra surface area and the fuel penalty.

Vorticity and Horseshoe System

The wing-bound vortex, together with the trailing vortices, form a kind of horseshoe shape, and this is sometimes called the horseshoe vortex system. It forms three sides of the predicted closed ring. The circuit is completed by the starting vortex. A strong starting vortex is formed when the aircraft rotates at take-off. More vorticity is produced and left behind when the aircraft produces an increase in wing circulation. An additional starting vortex is formed, when an aircraft starts to pull out of a dive. The counterpart of starting vorticity is stop ping vorticity, which rotates opposite and is shed every time the circulation is reduced, landing.

Trailing Vortices & Downwash

The trailing vortices are not just a mildly interesting by-product of wing lift. Their influence on the flow extends well beyond their central core, modifying the whole flow pattern. In particular, they alter the flow direction and speed in the vicinity of the wing and tail surfaces. The trailing vortices thus have a strong influence on the lift, drag and handling properties of the aircraft. Downwash, is apparent not only behind the wing, but also influences the approaching air, and the flow over the wing itself. It causes the air to be deflected downwards as it flows past the wing. The angle of attack relative to the modified local airstream direction, is reduced. This reduction in effective angle of attack means that less lift will be generated at a given AoA.

Downwash

Increase AoA, increase drag

Trailing Vortices & Downwash

A strong starting vortex is formed and left behind just above the runway when the aircraft rotates at take-off. More starting vorticity is produced and left behind whenever the aircraft produces an increase in wing circulation. An additional starting vortex is thus formed, when an aircraft starts to pull out of a dive. The counterpart of starting vorticity is stopping vorticity, which rotates in the opposite sense, and is shed every time the circulation is reduced, as on landing. In level flight, the amount of circulation required reduces as the speed increases, so stopping vorticity is shed when an aircraft accelerates in level flight. Strong starting and stopping vortices can be generated during violent manoeuvres, and may significantly affect the handling.

Downwash

Trailingvortices are by-productDownwash changes the air Vortices & of wing lift, their influence Trailing
flow pattern. They alter the flow direction and speed in the vicinity of the wing and tail surfaces. The air behind the wing is drawn downwards, and this is called downwash. Downwash also influences the approaching air, the flow over the wing, and causes the air to be deflected downwards as it flows past the wing. Due to downwash, the angle of attack relative to the local airstream is reduced. This means that less lift will be generated at certain angles. It also produces trailing vortex drag Trailing vortices also produce a large upwash outboard of the wing tips. The upward momentum change thus produced cancels out the downward momentum change of the downwash.

The End