Math 023:

Educational Statistics

Lesson 1:

Introduction to Educational Statistics

Introduction to Educational Statistics

Statistics
Is the study of the collection, organization, display, and analysis of data and the methods by which inferences and conclusions can be drawn from the data

Population
Is the set of all possible data values for a subject under consideration

Sample
Is a set of data values drawn from the much larger population

Two main branches of Statistics

1. Descriptive Statistics
Involves the collection, organization, and analysis of all data relating to some population or sample under study

2. Inferential Statistics
Involves making predictions or decisions about an entire population based on the results from the data in an appropriately chosen sample drawn from that population

Collection of Data:
Organize the ff. data: Heights of students in a statistics class, measured in inches: 68 62 60 66 74 62 63 64 70 65 65 64 67 66 71 69 66 65 66 68 63 67 61 65 69 66 67 72 64 71 72 62 63 68 61 64

Score
Score generally call for data Range = Highest Score Lowest Score

Lesson 2:

Frequency

Frequency
Frequency
The number of times some occurred in the data

Complete the ff. Frequency Distribution:

Height (inches) 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 F 1 2 3

67 68 69
70 71 72 73 74

Guidelines to construct a Frequency Distribution

1. A frequency distribution should have a minimum of 5 classes and a maximum of 20. For small data sets, use between 5 and 10 classes. For large data sets, use up to 20 classes. 2. Each data entry must fall into one and only one class. 3. There should be no gaps. The largest value in a class should be one less than the smallest value in the next class. Moreover, if there are no entries for a particular class, that class must still be included with a frequency of 0.

Guidelines to construct a Frequency Distribution

4. Each class should have the same width. The width is called Class Width. Class Width = Range Number of Classes Class width is usually rounded up to the next integer.

Guidelines to construct a Frequency Distribution

5. It is sometimes desirable to use some type of tail-end designation for the first and last classes such as under 60 and over 74. 6. It is sometimes desirable to use class boundaries between successive classes. The boundaries must be set up using an additional decimal place.

Lesson 3:

Frequency Distribution

Frequency Distribution
Class Limits 72 74 Frequency 3

69 71
66 68 63 65 60 62 C=3

5
11 11 6 n = 36

Class Width
Class Width = Range No. of Classes Range = Highest Score Lowest Score Range = 74 60 Range = 14 Class Width = 14 5 Class Width = 2.8 Class Width 3

Class Boundaries/True Limits

Class Boundaries Frequency

71.5 74.5
68.5 71.5 65.5 68.5 62.5 65.5 59.5 62.5

3
5 11 11 6

c=3

n = 36

Relative Frequency

Relative Frequency = Number of Entries in a Class Total number of entries

Relative Frequency Distribution

Class Limits 72 74 69 71 66 68 60 62 60 62 c=3 F 3 5 11 11 6 n = 36 Relative Frequency (%)

Cumulative Frequency
Class Limits 72 74 Frequency 3 Less than Cumulative Frequency

69 71
66 68 63 65 60 62 c=3

5
11 11 6 n = 36

Lesson 4:

Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Central Tendency

1. Mean the arithmetic average of the values

Mean = ( x) n

Measures of Central Tendency

2. Median
Corresponds to the middle of a set of data when the numbers are in numerical order.

A. If the number of measurements n is an odd number, the median is the middle value B. If the number of measurements n is an even number, the median is the average of the two middle scores

Find the Median

1. 10, 15, 25, 30, 45

2. 6, 10, 15, 25, 30, 45

Measures of Central Tendency

Mode
Refers to the value that occurs most frequently

Find the Mode

1. 3, 4, 6, 6, 8 2. 3, 5, 8, 9, 8, 5, 2

3. 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6
4. 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5 5. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Conditions of Modes
1. Unimodal a set of data has only one mode 2. Bimodal a set of data has exactly two modes 3. Trimodal a set of data has exactly three modes 4. Multimodal a set of data has four or more modes 5. No mode a set of data has no mode

Lesson 5:

Midrange

Midrange
Midrange
Is the average of the largest value & lowest value in the given set of data

Midrange = (Largest Value Lowest Value) 2

Which of the values of the central tendencies will be beneficial to the ff. group of people?
1. The school board to demonstrate to parents that small sizes are maintained. 2. The school board members to demonstrate fiscal responsibility 3. The teachers union to argue that class sizes are too large

Class Mark
Class Mark
The average of the upper limit and the lower limit of each class

Complete the Table

Class Limits 72 74 F 3 CM fCM <cf

69 71
66 68 63 65 60 62 c=3

5
10 12 6 n = 36 fCM =

Find the ff., using the given data set above

1. Mean 2. Median 3. Mode

Lesson 6:

Quantile

Quantile
Quantile
Refers to the value that divides the data into equal proportions

Types of Quantiles: 1. Percentile 2. Decile 3. Quartile

Percentile
The kth percentile for a set of data in numerical order is that value x having the property that k percent of the data entries lie at or below x. Pk = represents the kth percentile P90 = the 90th percentile of a data set is the value of x that 90% of the data fall at or below x

Assume the ff. weights (in lbs)

163 162 160 160 160 159 159 157 157 155 154 154 153 152 151 149 148 147 147 147 147 146 146 144 144 144 143 142 141 140 138 136 134 129 129 128 126 123 122 121

Find:
1. P75 2. P20 3. P27 4. P50

Decile
Decile
Divides the data set into 10 equal parts

D1 = the first decile locates the bottom 10% of the data and is equivaletn to the 10th percentile

Quartile
Quartile
Divides the data set into 4 equal parts

Q1 first quartile locates the bottom 25% of the data Q2 second quartile locates the bottom 50% Q3 third quartile locates the bottom 75%

Lesson 7:

Box and Whisker Plot

Box and Whisker Plot

The graphical means for displaying the information given by the quantiles of a data set To construct, organize a data set into four groups based on the lowest value, the first quartile, the second quartile, the third quartile, and the largest value.

Box and Whisker Plot

Lesson 8:

Measures of Dispersion

Measures of Dispersion
1. Mean Deviation 2. Sample Variance 3. Standard Deviation

Mean Deviation

MD = ( |xi Mean|) n

Find the Mean Deviation using the data below:

Data Set: 2, 3, 5, 7, 8

xi 2 3 5 7 8 n=5

Xi Mean

|xi Mean|

|xi Mean| =

Sample Variance

2 s

= * |xi

2] Mean|

(n-1)

Standard Deviation

s =* |xi

2] Mean|

(n-1)

Standard Deviation
The standard deviation has meaning only when comparing two or more data sets having the same units of measure and approximately the same mean.

Lesson 9:

Coefficient of Variation

Coefficient of Variation

V = (s x) x 100%
Since V is a measure of relative variation expressed as a percent, the coefficient of variation can be used to compare the variability of two or more sets of data even when the observations are expressed in different units of measurement.

Compute for the ff:

1. Compute the coefficient of variation for the distribution of goals scored by the lacrosse team for a given season: 4, 9, 0, 1, 3, 24, 1, 2, 3, 30, 12, 7, 13, 18, 4, 5, and 15 2. The weight of 10 boxes of a certain brand of cereal have a mean content of 278 grams wit ha standard deviation of 9.64 grams. If the boxes were purchased at 10 different stores and the average price per box is $1.29 with a standard deviation of $0.9, can you conclude that the weight are relatively more homogeneous than the prices?

Lesson 10:

Probability

Probability
Factorial (denoted by !) the product of all integers from 1 to the given integer. Ex. 9! = 987654321 Sample Space a set whose elements represent all possible outcomes of an experiment Sample Point an element of a sample space

Give the Sample Space

1. Tossing a coin {H, T} 2. Tossing two coins

3. Tossing three coins

4. Tossing a dice 5. Tossing two dice

Probability
Event a subset of a sample space

Give the elements of the following events:

1. In tossing to coins, E1 = {at least 1 head}
E1 = {HH, HT, TH}

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

In tossing two coins, E1 = {at most 2 heads} In tossing a dice, E1 = {an even number} In tossing 2 dice, E1 = {sum of 7} In tossing 2 dice, E1 = {sum of at most 5} In tossing 2 dice, E1 = {4 occurs on either die} In tossing 2 dice, E1 = {a 3 comes up on the black die

Lesson 11:

Counting Sample Points

The Fundamental Counting Principle (FPC)

If one thing can be done in n1 ways & if after it is done in one of these ways, a second thing can be done in n2 different ways, and if, after that is done, a third thing can be done in n3 ways & so on, then the total count of the different ways the things can be done in n1n2n3

Ex. How many ways can 2 dice fall? 66 = 36

Solve the following:

1. A girl has 6 bags, 11 dresses, and 7 pairs of shoes. In how many different ways can she dress up? 2. In how many ways can a student answer a five item true or false?

Lesson 12:

Permutation

Permutation
A permutation in a set of object is any arrangement of the objects in a definite pattern (Order is Important). I. The number of permutations of n distinct objects is n! II. The number of distinct permutations of n objects taken r at a time is: nPr = n! (n-r)!

Permutation
1. How many distinct arrangements are there for a, b, and c? 2. How many distinct arrangements are there for a photograph of 6 students? 3. In how many specific arrangements can we place 8 books in a shelf, taken 4 at a time? 4. In how many ways can we choose a President, V.P., Secretary, Treasurer, and P.R.O. from 10 students?

Permutation
III. The number of distinct permutations of a set of n objects of which n1 are alike, n2 are alike, and so on, is given by: n! n1 n2

Permutation
1. How many distinct ways can be made from the word LOBO? 2. How many different ways can 3 red, 4 yellow, and 7 blue bulbs be arranged in a string of Christmas tree lights with 14 sockets?

Permutation
IV. Circular Permutations if the objects are in cyclic form: (n-1)!

Permutation
1. Find the number of different ways 4 people can be seated at a round table? 2. There are 8 students, 4 boys & 4 girls. How many distinct photographs can you take:
1. With all of them in a row? 2. Two friends insist to always be together? 3. Boys are grouped together and girls are grouped together? 4. Boys and girls are alternate? 5. Three friends insist to always be together? 6. Two do not want to be together?

Lesson 13:

Combination

Combination
A Combination is any collection of a group of objects without regard to order. nCr = n! *r! (n-r)!]

Combination
1. From A, B, & C, how many combinations can you make of two letters? 2. Out of 30 flower pits, how many groups of 5 pots can you make to place for display? 3. In a box, there are 5 blue balls, 4 red ones, and 3 yellow ones. How many ways can you draw
1. 5 balls? 2. 5 balls, where 2 of them are red? 3. 5 balls, where 2 are blue and 1 is yellow?

A Deck of Cards
A Deck of Cards consists of: 1. 52 cards, disregarding the Joker; 2. 4 suits (Hearts, Diamonds, Cloves, Spades); 3. Each suit has an Ace, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5......10, Jack, Queen, and King; 4. Red Cards (Diamond / Hearts); 5. Black Cards (Cloves / Spades); and 6. Face Cards (Jack, Queen, and King)

Combination
In a deck of cards, how many ways can you draw:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 5 cards? 5 face cards? 5 red cards? 5 red cards, where 2 of them are face cards? 8 black cards where 2 are aces and 3 are face cards?

Lesson 14:

Probability (Continuation)

Probability
Probability is the chance of occurrence of an event P(E) = n(E) n(S) where: n(E) = no. of elements in the event. n(S) = no. of elements in the sample space.

Probability
1. In tossing a coin, what is the probability of a head? 2. In tossing two coins, what is the probability of at least 1 head? 3. In tossing a dice, what is the probability of an even number? 4. In tossing 2 dice, what is the probability of the sum of 7?

Probability
In drawing 5 cards from a deck of cards, what is a probability of:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 5 Red cards? 3 red and 2 blue? 5 black face cards? 4 aces? 2 Jacks, 2 Queens, and a King?

Probability
In a bowl, there are 3 red balls, 4 yellow balls, and 3 white balls. In drawing 4 balls, what is the probability of:
1. 2. 3. 4. 4 yellow balls? 3 red balls? 2 red and 2 white? 1 red and 2 yellow?

Probability
In a poker hand consisting of 5 cards, find the probability of holding:
1. 2 aces and 3 jacks? 2. 3 aces? 3. 4 hearts and 1 club?

Lesson 15:

Rules in Probability, Complementary Events, Mutually Exclusive Events, and Independent Events

Rules in Probability
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. P(certainty) = 1 P(impossibility) = 0 0 P(event) 1 Sum of Probabilities = 1 P(not A) = 1 P(A)

Complementary Events
P(A) + P(not A) = 1

Complementary Events
1. If the probability that Ms. Johnsons Cat has diarrhea is , what is the probability that her car doesnt have diarrhea? 2. If the probability that it will rain tomorrow is , what is the probability that it will not rain tomorrow?

Mutually Exclusive Events

P(A U B) = P(A) + P(B)

Mutually Exclusive Events

1. What is the probability of getting a total of 7 or 11 when a pair of dice is tossed? 2. A pair of dice is tossed. Find the probability of getting:
1. A total of 8? 2. At most a total of 5? 3. At least a total of 10?

Independent Events
Independent Events are two events where the outcome of one has no bearing on that of the other. Ex. Two coin flips are independent events because the result of the first has no bearing on the result of the second

Independent Events
1. In 2 flips, what is the probability of getting 2 Heads? 2. The spinner is equally likely to wind up in any of 3 regions. If the spinner is spun three times, find the probability of:
1. 3 even numbers 2. Spinning exactly 1 odd number.

3. A coin is tossed 3 times. What is the probability of getting:

1. 3 heads? 2. Exactly 2 tails?

Independent Events
4. Suppose that we have a fuse box containing 20 fuses of which 5 are defective. If 2 fuses are selected at random and moved from the box in succession without replacing the first, what is the probability that both fuses are defective?

Lesson 16:

Binomial Distribution

Binomial Distribution
Let p = probability of a success Let q = 1 p or the probability of a failure The probability of exactly r successes in any order in n trial is:
(nCr)(pr)(qn-r)

Binomial Distribution
1. A fair die is rolled 5 times. Find the probability of rolling exactly two 6s 2. The spinner is equally likely to wind up in any of the 3 regions. If the spinner is spun 3 times, find the probability of spinning:
1. 3 even numbers 2. Spinning exactly one odd number

3. The probability that a patient recovers from a rare blood pressure is 0.4. if 15 people are known to have contracted this disease, what is the probability that exactly 4 survive?

Lesson 17:

Normal Distribution

Normal Curve

Properties of the Normal Curve

1. The mode, which is the point on the horizontal axis where the curve is a symmetric about a vertical axis through the mean 2. The curve is symmetric about a vertical axis through the mean 3. The normal curve approaches the horizontal axis asymptotically as we proceed in either direction away from the mean

Properties of the Normal Curve

4. The total area under the curve and above the horizontal axis is equal to 1. Note: we transform all the observations of any normal random variable x to a new set of observations of a normal random variable z w/ mean zero and variance 1. z = (x Mean)

Normal Distribution
1. Given a normal distribution with Mean = 50 and = 10,
1. x assumes a value less than 45 2. x assumes a value greater than 62 3. x assumes a value between 45 and 62

2. Given a normal distribution w/ Mean = 300 and = 50, find the probability that x assumes a value greater than 362

Normal Distribution
3. Given a normal distribution w/ Mean = 40 and = 6, find the value x that has:
38% of the area below it. 5% of the area above it.

Lesson 18:

Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis Testing
Statistical Hypothesis is an assertion or conjecture concerning one or more populations. Rejection of Hypothesis is to conclude that it is false. Acceptance of a Hypothesis implies that we have no evidence to believe otherwise

Hypothesis Testing
Statistician or Experimenter often start as his hypothesis that which he hopes to reject. Null Hypothesis is a hypothesis that is formulated with hope that they be rejected. This is the hypothesis we wish to test and is denoted by H0 Alternative Hypothesis is the hypothesis that is to be accepted when the Null Hypothesis should be rejected, and is denoted by H1

Hypothesis Testing
Type I Error rejection of the null hypothesis when it is true Type II Error acceptance of the null hypothesis when it is false

Hypothesis Testing
One Tailed Test
A test of any statistical hypothesis where the alternative is one sided.

Two Tailed Test

A test of any statistical hypothesis where the alternative is two sided

Steps for Testing a Hypothesis

The steps for testing a hypothesis concerning population parameter against some alternative hypothesis may be summarized as follows: 1. State the null hypothesis 2. Choose an appropriate alternative hypothesis from one of the alternatives 3. Choose a significance level of size 2. 4. Select the appropriate test statistic and establish the critical region 5. Compute the value of the test statistic from the sample data 6. Make the decision based on the results of the test statistic

Lesson 19:

Hypothesis Testing (Computations)

Goodness of Fit Test

A die is tossed 120 times w/ the ff. results:
X F 1 20 2 22 3 17 4 18 5 19 6 24

Is this a balanced die? Use a 0.05 level of significance

Test for Independence

A Random sample of 1,000 residents of Illinois were classified according to their religious affiliation and their pattern of worship. Test the hypothesis, at a 0.05 level of significance, that the religious affiliation is independent of their pattern of worship
Protestant Catholic Jewish Total

Worship Regularly
Worship Infrequently

182
154

213
138

203
110

598
402

Total

336

351

313

1000

Testing Several Proportions

In a shop study, a set of data was collected to determine whether or not the proportion of defectives produced by workers was the same for the day, evening, or night shift worked. The ff. data were collected:
Day
Defectives Non Defectives 45 905

Evening
55 890

Night
70 870

Use a 0.025 level of significance to determine if the proportion of defectives is the same for all three shifts.