ENVIRONMENTAL

CHEMISTRY
Earth's atmosphere
 The Earth's atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth
that is retained by the Earth's gravity. Dry air contains roughly (by molar
content – equivalent to volume, for gases) 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95%
oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.038% carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of
other gases; but air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on
average around 1%. This mixture of gases is commonly known as air.
The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet
solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (
greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and
night.
 There is no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space.
It slowly becomes thinner and fades into space. Three quarters of the
atmosphere's mass is within 11 km of the planetary surface. An altitude of
120 km (~75 miles or 400,000 ft) marks the boundary where atmospheric
effects become noticeable during re-entry. The Kármán line, at 100 km
(62 miles or 328,000 ft), is also frequently regarded as the boundary
between atmosphere and outer space.
Layers of air surrounding
the earth
 The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude; the
mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five different atmospheric layers (ordered
highest to lowest, the ionosphere is part of the thermosphere):
 Exosphere: from 500 – 1000 km (300 – 600 mi) up to 10,000 km (6,000 mi), free-moving particles that may migrate into
and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind.
 exobase boundary Ionosphere: the part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. It plays an important part in
atmospheric electricity and forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere. It has practical importance because, among
other functions, it influences radio propagation to distant places on the Earth. It is located in the thermosphere and is
responsible for auroras.
 thermopause boundary Thermosphere: from 80 – 85 km (265,000 – 285,000 ft) to 640+ km (400+ mi), temperature
increasing with height.
 mesopause boundary Mesosphere: From the Greek word "μέσος" meaning middle. The mesosphere extends from
about 50 km (160,000 ft) to the range of 80 to 85 km (265,000 – 285,000 ft), temperature decreasing with height. This is
also where most meteors burn up when entering the atmosphere.
 stratopause boundary Stratosphere: From the Latin word "stratus" meaning a spreading out. The stratosphere extends
from the troposphere's 7 to 17 km (23,000 – 60,000 ft) range to about 50 km (160,000 ft). Temperature increases with
height. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer, the part of the Earth's atmosphere which contains relatively high
concentrations of ozone. "Relatively high" means a few parts per million—much higher than the concentrations in the
lower atmosphere but still small compared to the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower
portion of the stratosphere from approximately 15 to 35 km (50,000 – 115,000 ft) above Earth's surface, though the
thickness varies seasonally and geographically.
 tropopause boundary Troposphere: From the Greek word "τρέπω" meaning to turn or change. The troposphere is the
lowest layer of the atmosphere; it begins at the surface and extends to between 7 km (23,000 ft) at the poles and 17 km
(60,000 ft) at the equator, with some variation due to weather factors. The troposphere has a great deal of vertical mixing
because of solar heating at the surface. This heating warms air masses, which makes them less dense so they rise.
When an air mass rises, the pressure upon it decreases so it expands, doing work against the opposing pressure of the
surrounding air. To do work is to expend energy, so the temperature of the air mass decreases. As the temperature
decreases, water vapor in the air mass may condense or solidify, releasing latent heat that further uplifts the air mass.
This process determines the maximum rate of decline of temperature with height, called the adiabatic lapse rate. The
troposphere contains roughly 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere
Air Pollution
 Air pollution is the human introduction of, chemicals,
particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm
or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or
damages the natural environment, into the atmosphere. Air
pollution causes deaths and respiratory disease. Air
pollution is often identified with major stationary sources,
but the greatest source of emissions is mobile sources,
mainly automobiles. Gases such as carbon dioxide, which
contribute to global warming, have recently gained
recognition as pollutants by climate scientists, while they
also recognize that carbon dioxide is essential for plant life
through photosynthesis.
 The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous
system that is essential to support life on planet Earth.
Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long
been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to
the Earth's ecosystems.
Sources of air pollution
 "Stationary Sources" as smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities, municipal waste
incinerators. Power plant is also used to refer to the engine in ships, aircraft and other large
vehicles. Some prefer to use the term energy center because it more accurately describes what
the plants do, which is the conversion of other forms of energy, like chemical energy, gravitational
potential energy or heat energy into electrical energy.
 "Mobile Sources" as motor vehicles, aircraft etc. Exhaust gases of automobiles and air crafts play
a very important role in in polluting the atmosphere.
 Marine vessels, such as container ships or cruise ships, and related port air pollution.
 Burning wood, fireplaces, stoves, furnaces and incinerators .
 Oil refining, and industrial activity in general.The refining process releases numerous different
chemicals into the atmosphere; consequently, there are substantial air pollution emissions and a
notable odor normally accompanies the presence of a refinery. Aside from air pollution impacts
there are also wastewater concerns, risks of industrial accidents such as fire and explosion, and
noise health effects due to industrial noise.
 Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management. Controlled
or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie
restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland
ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the
germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest.
 Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents.
 Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane.Methane is not toxic; however, it is highly
flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may
displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen
concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement.
 Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry.
Carbon monoxide
 Almost 90% of the carbon monoxide
(CO) comes from natural sources. Most H
of the carbon monoxide is formed from
O
the atmospheric
O O oxidation C
of natural
O gas
(CH4). H

 2CH4 + 3O2 → 2CO + 4H2O.

Oxides of nitrogen N

N
O

Nitrous
N O
oxide

Nitrogen
monoxide
N

O O

Nitrogen
Oxides of Sulphur
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
and sulfur trioxide
(SO3) are two
chemical
O compounds whose
molecules are madeSulfur dioxide (SO ) is
2
up of one sulfur
a colorless, dense,
atom and multiple
S toxic, nonflammable
oxygen atoms. Know
together as sulfur
O At normal Sulfur
gas with a strong odor.
oxides, these
substances are
temperatures and
pressures, sulfurTrioxide
important
trioxide is a liquid.
atmospheric pollutants O
Sulfur
.
Oxygen-rich sulfur
trioxide (SO3) is highly
Dioxide reactive, and readily
combines with many O S
substances.

O
Volatile organic
compunds
 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are organic chemical
compounds that have high enough vapour pressures under
normal conditions to significantly vaporize and enter the
atmosphere. A wide range of carbon-based molecules, such as
aldehydes, ketones, and other light hydrocarbons are VOCs. The
term often is used in a legal or regulatory context and in such
cases the precise definition is a matter of law. These definitions
can be contradictory and may contain "loopholes"; e.g.
exceptions, exemptions, and exclusions. The United States
Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) defines a VOC as any
organic compound that participates in a photoreaction; others
believe this definition is very broad and vague as organics that
are not volatile in the sense that they vaporize under normal
conditions can be considered volatile by this EPA definition. The
term may refer both to well characterized organic compounds and
to mixtures of variable composition.
Effect Of VOCs to
environment
 VOCs are sometimes accidentally released into
the environment, where they can damage soil and
groundwater. Vapours of VOCs escaping into the air
contribute to air pollution.
 VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field
they are often divided into the separate categories of
methane (CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is
an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to
enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are
also significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating
ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the
atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local
air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds
benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens
and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure.
1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound which is
often associated with industrial uses.
 Some VOCs also react with nitrogen oxides
in the air in the presence of sunlight to form
ozone. Although ozone is beneficial in the
upper atmosphere because it absorbs UV
thus protecting humans, plants, and animals
from exposure to dangerous solar radiation,
it poses a health threat in the lower
atmosphere by causing respiratory
problems. In addition high concentrations of
low level ozone can damage crops and
buildings.
Particulates
 These are solid particles suspended or
carried in the air and are generally large
enough to be seen.
 Particulates from man-made sources
include:
Smoke and soot produced by the combustion of
coal, petroleum, wood etc.
Dust from mechanical break-up of solid matter
Asbestos from industrial plants
Metallic particles such as Beryllium.
Reduction of air pollution
 There are various air pollution control technologies and
land use planning strategies available to reduce air
pollution.At its most basic level land use planning is likely to
involve zoning and transport infrastructure planning. In
most developed countries, land use planning is an
important part of social policy, ensuring that land is used
efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and
population as well as to protect the environment.
 Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes
primary regulation (many developing countries have
permissive regulations), expanding regulation to new
sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm
equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as
lawn trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased
fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles),
conversion to cleaner fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel,
or conversion to electric vehicles).
Controlling devics
 The following items are commonly used
as pollution control devices by industry or
transportation devices. They can either
destroy contaminants or remove them
from an exhaust stream before it is
emitted into the atmosphere.
Particulate control
 Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)
 Electrostatic precipitators .An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or
electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes
particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an induced
electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration
devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and
can easily remove fine particulate matter such as dust and smoke from the
air stream.
 Baghouses designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists
of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or
dust removal system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize
disposable filters to remove the dust).
 Particulate scrubbers, Wet scrubber is a form of pollution control
technology. The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants
from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the
polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by
spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some
other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.
Scrubbers

Baffle spray scrubber

Cyclonic spray scrubber
Ejector venturi scrubber
Mechanically aided scrubber
Spray tower
Wet scrubber
Nox
Low NOx burners
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
NOx scrubbers
Exhaust gas recirculation
Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)
VOC abatement
Adsorption systems, such as activated
carbon
Flares
Thermal oxidizers
Catalytic oxidizers
Biofilters
Absorption (scrubbing)
Cryogenic condensers
Vapour recovery systems
Acid/Gas control
Wet scrubbers
Dry scrubbers
Flue gas desulfurization
Mercury Control
Sorbent Injection Technology
Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)
K-Fuel
Catalytic convertor
Air to Fuel Ratio
 Air-fuel ratio (AFR) is the mass ratio of air to fuel present during combustion. When all the fuel is
combined with all the free oxygen, typically within a vehicle's combustion chamber, the mixture is
chemically balanced and this AFR is called the stoichiometric mixture (often abbreviated to stoich). AFR
is an important measure for anti-pollution and performance tuning reasons. Lambda (λ) is an alternative
way to represent AFR.
 In industrial fired heaters, power plant steam generators, and large gas-fired turbines, the more
common term is percent excess combustion air. For example, excess combustion air of 15 percent
means that 15 percent more than the required stoichiometric air is being used.
 A mixture is the working point that modern engine management systems employing fuel injection
attempt to achieve in light load cruise situations. For gasoline fuel, the stoichiometric air/fuel mixture is
approximately 14.7 times the mass of air to fuel. Any mixture less than 14.7 to 1 is considered to be a
rich mixture, any more than 14.7 to 1 is a lean mixture - given perfect (ideal) "test" fuel (gasoline
consisting of solely n-heptane and iso-octane). In reality, most fuels consist of a combination of
heptane, octane, a handful of other alkanes, plus additives including detergents, and possibly
oxygenators such as MTBE (methyl tert-butyl ether) or ethanol/methanol. These compounds all alter the
stoichiometric ratio, with most of the additives pushing the ratio downward (oxygenators bring extra
oxygen to the combustion event in liquid form that is released at time of combustions; for MTBE-laden
fuel, a stoichiometric ratio can be as low as 14.1:1). Vehicles using an oxygen sensor(s) or other
feedback-loop to control fuel to air ratios (usually by controlling fuel volume) will usually compensate
automatically for this change in the fuel's stoichiometric rate by measuring the exhaust gas composition,
while vehicles without such controls (such as most motorcycles until recently , and cars predating the
mid-1980's) may have difficulties running certain boutique blends of fuels (esp. winter fuels used in
some areas) and may need to be rejetted (or otherwise have the fueling ratios altered) to compensate
for special boutique fuel mixes. Vehicles using oxygen sensors enable the air-fuel ratio to be monitored
by means of an air fuel ratio meter.
Continued….
 Lean mixtures produce hotter combustion gases than does
a stoichiometric mixture, so much so that pistons can melt
as a result. Rich mixtures produces cooler combustion
gases than does a stoichiometric mixture, primarily due to
the excessive amount of carbon which oxidises to form
carbon monoxide, rather than carbon dioxide. The chemical
reaction oxidizing carbon to form carbon monoxide
releases significantly less heat than the similar reaction to
form carbon dioxide. (Carbon monoxide retains significant
potential chemical energy. It is itself a fuel whereas carbon
dioxide is not.) Lean mixtures, when consumed in an
internal combustion engine, produce less power than does
the stoichiometric mixture. Similarly, rich mixtures return
poorer fuel efficiency than the stoichiometric mixture. (The
mixture for the best fuel efficiency is slightly different from
the stoichiometric mixture.)
Acid deposition
 Wet deposition
 Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of
precipitation (rain, snow, etc.) removes acids from the
atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth's surface. This can
result from the deposition of acids produced in the
raindrops (see aqueous phase chemistry above) or by the
precipitation removing the acids either in clouds or below
clouds. Wet removal of both gases and aerosols are both of
importance for wet deposition.
 Dry deposition
 Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the
absence of precipitation. This can be responsible for as
much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition.[16] This occurs
when particles and gases stick to the ground, plants or
other surfaces.
Formation of Acid
deposition:
 From oxides of sulphur:
In the presence of moisture, sulphur dioxide
produces sulphurous acid.
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO3 (aq.)
Sulphur dioxide can be oxidized in the presence
of O2, O3, .OH and sunlight to sulphur trioxide:
SO2 (g) + ½ O2 (g) SO3 (g)
In the presence of moisture, sulphur oxides can
be converted to sulphuric acid:
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) 2H2SO4 (aq.)
SO3 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (aq.)
Formation of Acid
deposition
 From oxides of nitrogen:
In absence of oxygen, nitrogen dioxide can
dissolve in water to produce a mixture of nitrous
acid (HNO2), and nitric acid:
2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) HNO2 (aq.) + HNO3 (aq.)
Nitrogen dioxide gas can be converted to nitric
acid, HNO3, in the presence of oxygen gas and
moisture through a series of complicated
reactions which can be summarized as:
4NO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + O2
Effects of acid rain on
humans
 Breathing air that contains fine droplets of
acid irritates the whole respiratory
system.
 It can also cause severe eye irritation.
 The small sulphate particles penetrate
the lungs where they become embedded
and have adverse effects on asthmatics.
Effect on aquatic life
 Eutrophication occurs as a result of
nitrates in acid deposition.
 Salmon fish cannot survive in a pH of 5.5
 Leaching of soil takes place when acid
rain takes place.
 The concentration of Al3+ ions increase.
Greenhouse effect
 The green house effect is explained in
the animation above.
Ozone depletion
 Ozone depletion is explained by the
animation above
Biochemical oxygen
demand
 The biochemical oxygen demand is a
measure of the amount of oxygen
consumed by the biodegradable organic
wastes and ammonia in a given amount of
water over a time period. The effluent
sample is diluted iin oxugen saturated water
and enclosed without any air space in a
BOD sample bottle.
 The greater the amount of oxygen-
demanding wastes, the higher is the BOD
Water treatment

Sewage is the water-carried wastes that flows aways from any

community. It can contain deomestic, sanitary, commercial and
industrial wastes. Such sewage may contain disease causing
microorganisms, organic materials as well as other toxic
substances such as heavy metal ions. The purpose of sewage
treatment is to remove hazardous materials.,reduce the BOD of
the seage and kill microorganism prior to discharge
Continued…..
 Water treatment describes those processes used to
make water more acceptable for a desired end-use.
These can include use as drinking water, industrial
processes, medical and many other uses. The goal of
all water treatment process is to remove existing
contaminants in the water, of reduce the concentration
of such contaminants so it becomes fit for its desired
end-use. One such use is returning water that has
been used back into the natural environment without
adverse ecological impact.
 The processes involved in treating water may be
physical such as settling, chemical such as
disinfection or coagulation, or biological such as
lagooning, slow sand filtration or activated sludge.
Sewage treatment
 Sewage treatment, or domestic wastewater treatment, is the process of removing
contaminants from wastewater, both runoff (effluents) and domestic. It includes physical,
chemical and biological processes to remove physical, chemical and biological
contaminants. Its objective is to produce a waste stream (or treated effluent) and a solid
waste or sludge suitable for discharge or reuse back into the environment. This material
is often inadvertently contaminated with many toxic organic and inorganic compounds.
 Sewage is created by residences, institutions, hospitals and commercial and industrial
establishments. It can be treated close to where it is created (in septic tanks, biofilters or
aerobic treatment systems), or collected and transported via a network of pipes and
pump stations to a municipal treatment plant (see sewerage and pipes and infrastructure
). Sewage collection and treatment is typically subject to local, state and federal
regulations and standards. Industrial sources of wastewater often require specialized
treatment processes (see Industrial wastewater treatment).
 The sewage treatment involves three stages, called primary, secondary and tertiary
treatment. First, the solids are separated from the wastewater stream. Then dissolved
biological matter is progressively converted into a solid mass by using indigenous, water-
borne microorganisms. Finally, the biological solids are neutralized then disposed of or
re-used, and the treated water may be disinfected chemically or physically (for example
by lagoons and micro-filtration). The final effluent can be discharged into a stream, river,
bay, lagoon or wetland, or it can be used for the irrigation of a golf course, green way or
park. If it is sufficiently clean, it can also be used for groundwater recharge or agricultural
purposes.
Secondary treatment
 Secondary treatment is designed to substantially degrade the biological content of the
sewage such as are derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent. The
majority of municipal and plants treat the settled sewage liquor using aerobic biological
processes. For this to be effective, the biota require both oxygen and a substrate on
which to live. There are a number of ways in which this is done. In all these methods, the
bacteria and protozoa consume biodegradable soluble organic contaminants (e.g. sugars
, fats, organic short-chain carbon molecules, etc.) and bind much of the less soluble
fractions into floc. Secondary treatment systems are classified as fixed film or
suspended growth. Fixed-film treatment process including trickling filter and
rotating biological contactors where the biomass grows on media and the sewage
passes over its surface. In suspended growth systems—such as activated sludge—the
biomass is well mixed with the sewage and can be operated in a smaller space than
fixed-film systems that treat the same amount of water. However, fixed-film systems are
more able to cope with drastic changes in the amount of biological material and can
provide higher removal rates for organic material and suspended solids than suspended
growth systems.
 Roughing filters are intended to treat particularly strong or variable organic loads,
typically industrial, to allow them to then be treated by conventional secondary treatment
processes. Characteristics include typically tall, circular filters filled with open synthetic
filter media to which wastewater is applied at a relatively high rate. They are designed to
allow high hydraulic loading and a high flow-through of air. On larger installations, air is
forced through the media using blowers. The resultant wastewater is usually within the
normal range for conventional treatment processes.
Tertiary treatment
 The purpose of tertiary treatment is to provide a final treatment stage to raise the effluent quality before
it is discharged to the receiving environment (sea, river, lake, ground, etc.). More than one tertiary
treatment process may be used at any treatment plant. If disinfection is practiced, it is always the final
process. It is also called "effluent polishing".
 Filtration
 Sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended matter. Filtration over activated carbon
removes residual toxins.
 Lagooning
 A sewage treatment plant and lagoon in Everett, Washington.
 Lagooning provides settlement and further biological improvement through storage in large man-made
ponds or lagoons. These lagoons are highly aerobic and colonization by native macrophytes, especially
reeds, is often encouraged. Small filter feeding invertebrates such as Daphnia and species of Rotifera
greatly assist in treatment by removing fine particulates.
 Constructed wetlands
 Constructed wetlands include engineered reedbeds and a range of similar methodologies, all of which
provide a high degree of aerobic biological improvement and can often be used instead of secondary
treatment for small communities, also see phytoremediation. One example is a small reedbed used to
clean the drainage from the elephants' enclosure at Chester Zoo in England.
 Nutrient removal
 Wastewater may contain high levels of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. Excessive release to the
environment can lead to a build up of nutrients, called eutrophication, which can in turn encourage the
overgrowth of weeds, algae, and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). This may cause an algal bloom, a
rapid growth in the population of algae. The algae numbers are unsustainable and eventually most of
them die. The decomposition of the algae by bacteria uses up so much of oxygen in the water that most
or all of the animals die, which creates more organic matter for the bacteria to decompose. In addition to
causing deoxygenation, some algal species produce toxins that contaminate drinking water supplies.
Different treatment processes are required to remove nitrogen and phosphorus.
Continued
 Nitrogen removal
 The removal of nitrogen is effected through the biological oxidation of nitrogen from ammonia (nitrification) to nitrate, followed
by denitrification, the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas. Nitrogen gas is released to the atmosphere and thus removed from
the water.
 Nitrification itself is a two-step aerobic process, each step facilitated by a different type of bacteria. The oxidation of ammonia
(NH3) to nitrite (NO2−) is most often facilitated by Nitrosomonas spp. (nitroso referring to the formation of a nitroso functional
group). Nitrite oxidation to nitrate (NO3−), though traditionally believed to be facilitated by Nitrobacter spp. (nitro referring the
formation of a nitro functional group), is now known to be facilitated in the environment almost exclusively by Nitrospira spp.
 Denitrification requires anoxic conditions to encourage the appropriate biological communities to form. It is facilitated by a
wide diversity of bacteria. Sand filters, lagooning and reed beds can all be used to reduce nitrogen, but the activated sludge
process (if designed well) can do the job the most easily. Since denitrification is the reduction of nitrate to dinitrogen gas, an
electron donor is needed. This can be, depending on the wastewater, organic matter (from faeces), sulfide, or an added donor
like methanol.
 Sometimes the conversion of toxic ammonia to nitrate alone is referred to as tertiary treatment.
 Phosphorus removal
 Phosphorus removal is important as it is a limiting nutrient for algae growth in many fresh water systems (for negative effects
of algae see Nitrogen removal). It is also particularly important for water reuse systems where high phosphorus
concentrations may lead to fouling of downstream equipment such as reverse osmosis.
 Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a process called enhanced biological phosphorus removal. In this process,
specific bacteria, called polyphosphate accumulating organisms (PAOs), are selectively enriched and accumulate large
quantities of phosphorus within their cells (up to 20% of their mass). When the biomass enriched in these bacteria is
separated from the treated water, these biosolids have a high fertilizer value.
 Phosphorus removal can also be achieved by chemical precipitation, usually with salts of iron (e.g. ferric chloride), aluminum
(e.g. alum), or lime. This may lead to excessive sludge productions as hydroxides precipitates and the added chemicals can
be expensive. Despite this, chemical phosphorus removal requires significantly smaller equipment footprint than biological
removal, is easier to operate and is often more reliable than biological phosphorus removal.
 Once removed, phosphorus, in the form of a phosphate rich sludge, may be land filled or, if in suitable condition, resold for
use in fertilizer.
Soil
 Soil is the naturally occurring, unconsolidated or loose
covering on the Earth's surface. Soil is made up of broken
rock particles that have been altered by chemical and
environmental conditions, affected by processes such as
weathering and erosion. Soil is different from its parent
rock(s) source(s), altered by interactions between the
lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and the biosphere.
It is a mixture of mineral and organic constituents that are
in solid, gaseous and aqueous states. Soil particles pack
loosely, forming a soil structure filled with pore spaces.
These pores contain soil solution (liquid) and air (gas).
Accordingly, soils are often treated as a three state system.
Most soils have a density between 1 and 2, and weigh
between 60 and 120 pounds per cubic foot. Soil is also
known as earth: it is the substance from which our planet
takes its name
Waste
 Waste is an unwanted or undesired material or substance. It is also referred to as rubbish, trash,
garbage, or junk depending upon the type of material and the regional terminology. In living
organisms, waste relates to unwanted substances or toxins that are expelled from them.
 Waste management is the human control of the collection, treatment and disposal of different
wastes. This is in order to reduce the negative impacts waste has on environment and society.
 Waste is directly linked to the human development, both technologically and socially. The
composition of different wastes have varied over time and location, with industrial development and
innovation being directly linked to waste materials. Examples of this include plastics and nuclear
technology. Some components of waste have economical value and can be recycled once correctly
recovered.
 Biodegradable waste such as food waste or sewage, is broken down naturally by microorganisms
either aerobically or anaerobically. If the disposal of biodegradable waste is not controlled it can
cause a number of wider problems including contributing to the release of greenhouse gases and
can impact upon human health via encouragement of pathogens.
 It is difficult to define specifically what a waste is. Items that some people discard have value to
others. It is widely recognised that waste materials are a valuable resource, whilst there is debate as
to how this value is best realised. Governments need to define what waste is in order that it can be
safely and legally managed. Different definitions need to be combined in order to ensure the safe
and legal disposal of the waste.
 As a nation, Americans generate more waste than any other nation in the world with 4.5 pounds of
municipal solid waste (MSW) per person per day, 55 percent of which is contributed as residential
garbage. The remaining 45 percent of waste in the U.S.'s ‘waste stream' comes from manufacturing,
retailing, and commercial trade in the U.S. economy
Ozone depletion (HL)
 Ozone depletion describes two distinct, but related observations: a slow, steady decline
of about 4 percent per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth's stratosphere(ozone
layer) since the late 1970s, and a much larger, but seasonal, decrease in stratospheric
ozone over Earth's polar regions during the same period. The latter phenomenon is
commonly referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to this well-known
stratospheric ozone depletion, there are also tropospheric ozone depletion events, which
occur near the surface in polar regions during spring.
 The detailed mechanism by which the polar ozone holes form is different from that for the
mid-latitude thinning, but the most important process in both trends is catalytic
destruction of ozone by atomic chlorine and bromine.[1] The main source of these
halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photodissociation of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
compounds, commonly called freons, and of bromofluorocarbon compounds known as
halons. These compounds are transported into the stratosphere after being emitted at
the surface. Both ozone depletion mechanisms strengthened as emissions of CFCs and
halons increased.
 CFCs and other contributory substances are commonly referred to as ozone-depleting
substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths
(270–315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere,
observed and projected decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern leading
to adoption of the Montreal Protocol banning the production of CFCs and halons as well
as related ozone depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It
is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in skin cancer,
damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone may
result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion.
 Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word "smog"
is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic
smog results from large amounts of coal
burning in an area caused by a mixture of
smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does
not usually come from coal but from vehicular
and industrial emissions that are acted on in the
atmosphere by sunlight to form secondary
pollutants that also combine with the primary
emissions to form photochemical smog.
 It is discussed in the above animation
Primary Pollutant
 Dangerous substance when emitted
into the atmosphere
 Directly cause lung damage and
respiratory distress
NOx
VOCs
PM2.5
PM10

November 2004 - Siebert Ground Level Ozone 43

Secondary Pollutant
 Chemical that is not emitted per se,
but forms from chemical interactions
between or among primary pollutants
in the atmosphere
PM2.5
Photochemical Smog
Ozone

November 2004 - Siebert Ground Level Ozone 44

London-type smog
 caused mainly by air pollution due to
combustion of coal and emission of sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and dust
 Such pollution mixed with fog can produce
droplets of sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
suspended in the air

November 2004 - Siebert Ground Level Ozone 45

Photochemical Smog
 the dominant pollutant in most of the
big cities of the world
 main component is ozone (O3), which
in high concentrations can cause
breathing problems and burning eyes
 Primary Pollutants involved in ozone
formation are:
NOx
VOCs

November 2004 - Siebert Ground Level Ozone 46

Los Angeles-type smog
(photochemical smog)
 Occurs on sunny days due to intense
traffic.
 Oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons
react in the presence of sunlight to
produce a mixture of aerosols and
gases.
 Photochemical smog contains ozone,
ketones, formaldehyde, and PAN
(peroxyacetyl nitrates).

November 2004 - Siebert Ground Level Ozone 47

Ozone Formation
Summary
VOC + NOx + Heat + Sunlight =
Ozone
 Motor vehicle exhaust and industrial
emissions, gasoline vapors, and
chemical solvents are some of the
major sources of NOx and VOC that
help to form ozone.

November 2004 - Siebert Ground Level Ozone 48

Ozone Formation
Cycle
 Ozone in small amounts is a normal part of the
atmosphere
 NO is oxidized by ozone and forms nitrogen
dioxide NO2
NO + O3 NO2 + O2
 Hydroxy-radicals (R.OH) are results of VOCs
 In the presence of sunlight the hydroxy-radical
reacts with an oxygen molecule. The result is a
peroxy-radical (R.O2 )
R.OH + O2 R.O2

November 2004 - Siebert Ground Level Ozone 49

 Ozone Formation
Cycle
 Nitrogen dioxide NO2 is split by the sun and
forms O-atoms and nitrogen oxide NO.
 O-atoms react with the molecular oxygen in the
air and form ozone (O3).
NO2 + O2 NO + O3
 Nitrogen oxide NO reacts with peroxy-radicals
R.O2 and forms NO2 again.
NO + R.O2 NO2 + R.O

November 2004 - Siebert Ground Level Ozone 50

Ozone Formation
Cycle
 Some ozone is consumed by NO
depending on the competing
concentration of peroxy-radicals R.O2.
 The peroxy-radicals are consumed
and ozone is formed while the
nitrogen oxides are always recycled.

November 2004 - Siebert Ground Level Ozone 51

Ozone Formation
Cycle
 This can only happen if
enough sunlight is available for efficient
photolysis (hot sunny days)
the mixture of peroxy-radicals and
nitrogen oxides favors the ozone
formation.

November 2004 - Siebert Ground Level Ozone 52

Good and Bad Ozone
 Ozone has the same chemical structure
whether it occurs miles above the earth
or at ground level
 "Good" ozone occurs naturally in the
stratosphere approximately 10 to 30
miles above the earth's surface and
forms a layer that protects life on earth
from the sun's harmful rays.
 In the earth's lower atmosphere, ground-
level ozone is considered "bad."

November 2004 - Siebert Ground Level Ozone 53

The summertime
pollutant
 Peak ozone levels typically occur
during hot, dry, stagnant summertime
conditions.
 The length of the ozone season varies
from one area of the United States to
another.
 Southern and Southwestern states
may have an ozone season that lasts
nearly the entire year.

November 2004 - Siebert Ground Level Ozone 54

Not Just a Local Problem
 Ozone and the
pollutants that form
it can cause air
quality problems
hundreds of miles
away.

November 2004 - Siebert Ground Level Ozone 55

Acid deposition (HL)
Today
- Quiz
-Earth Day
-Nutrients as Pollutants
-More Atmospheric
Pollutants
-Begin Water Pollution
- In-class Debate Prep
Our Society needs a better
understanding
of how we get clean water for all
 It isn’t the pollution that’s harming the
environment. It’s the impurities in
our air and water that are doing it.
Dan Quayle
 What can you
do?
ENERGY STAR - Energy-efficient choices can save families
about a third on their energy bill with similar savings of
greenhouse gas emissions, without sacrificing features, style
or comfort. ENERGY STAR is a government-backed program
helping businesses and individuals protect the environment
and make the energy-efficient choice.

Global Warming Actions In the Home - This page contains

information about how individuals can cut their utility bills by
purchasing energy-efficient appliances, fixtures, and other
home equipment and products while reducing the risk of
global warming.

Manage Your Household’s Water Pollution - Although

individual homes may contribute only minor amounts of water
pollution, the combined effect of an entire neighborhood can
 What can you
do?
Learn to Conserve Water in Your Home - You can also
take a virtual tour that will show you how to save water in
nearly every room in your house at the California Urban Water
Conservation Council's Web site H2OUSE

Maintain Your Septic System - One in four American homes is

served by septic systems. The U.S. Bureau of the Census reported
that at least 10% of septic systems failed in the previous year.

Help Prevent Stormwater Runoff - Pollution from stormwater runoff

is the most common cause of water pollution today.

Help Prevent Pollution in Your Community - Learn about a variety

of steps you can take.
Ecosystems
 an assemblage of different species and
their physical environment, all organized
in a way that each population of
organisms obtains energy and nutrients
through specific pathways within the
ecosystem.
Acid Rain
 Reactions to convert to acid
take place in ~2 days -
travel 1000 miles
 Down wind - Acid rain
 Dry Dep. vs Wet Dep.
 Dry Deposition
 50 % of total
 Can react with plants - strip
nutrients
 Tree dieback
Acid Rain and Trees
Forests affected by Acid Rain
Northeast US
Canada
Northern Europe
Asia
Acid Rain and Buildings
Many buildings are made of concrete and or stone

These compounds act as bases and react with acid

The building technically “weathers” very fast, or

Non technically “crumbles”
 Europe

The US Capitol
Human Emissions -
Combustion From atm.
 NOx
 N2 +O2 --> 2NO
 Forms in high
temperatures of
combustion engine
 Converted in the
atmosphere to HNO3 -
nitric acid
Human Emissions -
Fertilizer
 N2+Energy H+--> NH3

 Formed by the Haber

process
 Added to fields all over the
world, but often lost after
harvest
Acid Neutralization
 How does this work?
 Cation Exchange on
clay minerals
 Role of chemical
weathering...
Where do N emissions
originate?
~ 55% come from agriculture

~ 25% come from industry – e.g. coal fired power plants

~ 20% come from automobiles

Major powerplants – sources of N emissions – Acid rain
Nitrogen deposition 1989 - 1991 Nitrogen deposition 1995 - 1998
Change in NOx emissions
1990 - 1999
Surface water sensitivity to Acid Deposition - known in 1990
Surface water sensitivity to Acid Deposition - known in 1998
 Emissions increasing in the western US

1998
11,6
1 00
990
5,70
 Emissions increasing in the western US

1998
17,6
1990 00
15,8
00
 Emissions increasing in the western US

1998
28,8
1990 00
24,7
00
 Acid Rain Summary
Recent and current policies to reduce acid precipitation and
Nitrogen emissions are shifting the problem from one area
to another

While emissions are remaining stable or decreasing in already

Heavily impacted areas, they are increasing in formerly
“clean” or relatively unimpacted areas
(including other countries!)

Nitrogen is only one compound important in acid rain and

pollutant emissions to the atmosphere
sulfur – SOx – has been a relative success story
mercury is not an acid forming element, but is extremely
toxic and is still increasing
Other types of air
pollution
 The difference between stratospheric and
tropospheric ozone

 Photochemical smog
Inversion layers
Where is ozone the
“good guy”?

stratospher
e

trophosphere
In the stratosphere….
 Ozone blocks incoming Ultra-violet
radiation
 Ultraviolet radiation
Skin cancer
Cataracts
Plant Damage
But, what’s happening to
ozone in the
1979-1985

1986-1992

Deeper purple color means

Less ozone above
Antartica
Why?
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) are very stable
compounds that we produce at earth’s
surface
 They migrate to the stratosphere
 Their chlorine gets excited by ultraviolet
light
 After excitation, chlorine attacks ozone
layer, depleting it.
The Montreal Protocol has
reduced use of CFC’s, but…
 Their long life span means that they will be
in the stratosphere for a long time, still
destroying ozone.
 However, the rate of increase of ozone
depletion has slow, showing we are on the
right track
 By the way, ozone “holes” are opening up
in places other than Antarctica
 Where is ozone the “bad
guy”?
stratospher
e

trophosphere
Photochemical Smog

VOCs break
Cycle, allowing
PAN to form from
NO +VOC

PAN = Peroxyacetyl
Examples of
Smog
Chemical Equation for
Photochemical Smog
light

NOx+ VOC Ozone

reactant products
s

PAN = Peroxyacetyl
Where reactants come
from
 NOx primarily from transportation
 VOC from a variety of sources, including
refining, other industries, etc.
Inversion layers trap cold air,
allowing pollutants to build up in
concentrations, including the

Cold air

Warm air
Ozone’s bad features
 Extremely reactive will burn leaves,
lungs, synthetic compounds (e.g.
rubbers, plastics)
 Because of reactivity, is toxic in very low
concentrations (parts per billion)
 Water Pollution
Humans depend on very small
reservoirs of water
for all our needs

These reservoirs cycle/ turnover very

quickly

As they cycle they can either

collect pollution from other sources,

or
Water Pollution
WATER POLLUTION
Water Pollution

 Point Source  Non-point Source

Point Sources

 Singlelarge source
 Can localize it to one
spot
Industrial Plants
- Sewage pipes
Point Source - Example

 LUST - Leaky Underground Storage Tanks

 22% of the 1.2 million UST are LUSTy
 Look at water pollution from gasoline...
Point
source
examples
Non-point Sources

 Diffuse source or many smaller

point sources
 Automobiles
 Fertilizer on fields
Non point
source
examples
Non-point source pollutants -
nutrients
End Lecture 4/22/03
In class activity – pollutant sources in the
Chesapeake Bay
The four main roles for class debate on 5/1/2003
Pacific Lumber Company /Maxxam Corporation
The CEO’s
The managing directors of the project

Environmentalists
Sierra Club Members
EarthFirst! Activists

Townspeople
Local loggers
Local sports persons

Government Representatives
Bureau of Land Management
California Representative who introduced the legislation
 How does acid kill the
fish?
 When all base cations are striped from
soils
 Acid now reacts with metals e.g.
aluminum
Normally aluminum is immobile
below pH 5 - mobile aluminum
 Fish breath in the water
Aluminum comes out of solution
Clogs gills - suffocate
 Acid Rain Effects – Aquatic
When the pH drops below 6.0 species start to die off.
When one species dies, others that depend on it may as well
Watersheds – Large areas thought to be nitrogen saturated
Land - Sensitive Ecosystems to Nitrogen Deposition
Acid Rain Summary
We’re not the only ones
concerned about photochemical
smog
Soil Properties
 Texture
Definition: relative proportions of various sizes of individual
soil particles
USDA classifications
○ Sand: 0.05 – 2.0 mm
○ Silt: 0.002 - 0.05 mm
○ Clay: <0.002 mm
Textural triangle: USDA Textural Classes
Coarse vs. Fine, Light vs. Heavy
Affects water movement and storage
 Structure
Definition: how soil particles are grouped or arranged
Affects root penetration and water intake and movement
USDA Textural
Triangle
 Bulk Density (b)

b = soil bulk density, g/cm3

Ms = mass of dry soil, g
Vb = volume of soil sample, cm3
 Typical values: 1.1 - 1.6 g/cm3

 Particle Density (p)

P = soil particle density, g/cm3

Ms = mass of dry soil, g
Vs = volume of solids, cm3
 Typical values: 2.6 - 2.7 g/cm3
 Porosity ()

 Typical values: 30 - 60%

Water in Soils
 Soil water content

Mass water content (m)

m = mass water content (fraction)
Mw = mass of water evaporated, g (
24 hours @ 105oC)
Ms = mass of dry soil, g
 Volumetric water content (v)

V = volumetric water content (fraction)

Vw = volume of water
Vb = volume of soil sample
At saturation, V = 
V = As m
As = apparent soil specific gravity = b/w (w =
density of water = 1 g/cm3)
As = b numerically when units of g/cm3 are used
 Equivalent depth of water (d)
d = volume of water per unit land area = (v A L) / A = v L
d = equivalent depth of water in a soil layer
L = depth (thickness) of the soil layer
Volumetric Water Content & Equivalent
Depth

(cm3)

Equivalent
Depth

(g) (g) (
cm3
Volumetric Water Content &
Equivalent Depth

Soil Solids (Particles): 50%

0.50 in.

1
Very Large Pores: in.
0.15 in.
15% (Gravitational
Total Pore Water)
Space: Medium-sized Pores:
0.20
50% 20% (Plant Available in.
Water)
Very Small Pores:
0.15
15% (Unavailable Water) in.
Water-Holding Capacity of
Soil

Coarse Sand Silty Clay Loam

Dry Soil

Gravitational Water
Water Holding
Capacity
Available Water
Unavailable Water
 Soil Water Potential
 Description
Measure of the energy status of the soil water
Important because it reflects how hard plants must work
to extract water
Units of measure are normally bars or atmospheres
Soil water potentials are negative pressures (tension or
suction)
Water flows from a higher (less negative) potential to a
lower (more negative) potential
 Soil Water Potential
 Components

t = total soil water potential

g = gravitational potential (force of gravity pulling on
the water)
m = matric potential (force placed on the water by
the soil matrix – soil water “tension”)
o = osmotic potential (due to the difference in salt
concentration across a semi-permeable membrane,
such as a plant root)
Matric potential, m, normally has the greatest effect
on release of water from soil to plants
 Soil Water Release Curve
Curve of matric potential (tension) vs. water content
Less water  more tension
At a given tension, finer-textured soils retain more water
(larger number of small pores)
Matric Potential and Soil Texture
The tension or suction created by small capillary
tubes (small soil pores) is greater that that
created by large tubes (large soil pores). At any
given matric potential coarse soils hold less
water than fine-textured soils.

Height of capillary
rise inversely
related to tube
diameter
•Field Capacity (FC or  fc)
–Soil water content where gravity drainage
becomes negligible
–Soil is not saturated but still a very wet condition
–Traditionally defined as the water content
corresponding to a soil water potential of -1/10 to -1
/3 bar
•Permanent Wilting Point (WP or  wp)
–Soil water content beyond which plants cannot
recover from water stress (dead)
–Still some water in the soil but not enough to be of
use to plants
–Traditionally defined as the water content
 Available Water
 Definition
Water held in the soil between field capacity and
permanent wilting point
“Available” for plant use
 Available Water Capacity (AWC)
AWC = fc - wp
Units: depth of available water per unit depth of soil,
“unitless” (in/in, or mm/mm)
Measured using field or laboratory methods
(described in text)
Soil Hydraulic Properties and Soil
Texture
 Fraction available water depleted (fd)

fc - v) = soil water deficit (SWD)

v = current soil volumetric water content

 Fraction available water remaining (fr)

v - wp) = soil water balance (SWB)

 Total Available Water (TAW)
TAW = (AWC) (Rd)
TAW = total available water capacity within the plant
root zone, (inches)
AWC = available water capacity of the soil,
(inches of H2O/inch of soil)
Rd = depth of the plant root zone, (inches)
If different soil layers have different AWC’s, need to sum
up the layer-by-layer TAW’s

TAW = (AWC1) (L1) + (AWC2) (L2) + . . . (AWCN) (LN)

- L = thickness of soil layer, (inches)
- 1, 2, N: subscripts represent each successive soil layer

[Error on page 26 of text: change SWD TAW ]

 Gravity vs.
Capillarity

Horizontal
Vertical movement due to
movement due capillarity
largely to gravity
Water Infiltration
Def’n.: the entry of water into
Influencing Factors
 Soil texture
 Initial soil water content
 Surface sealing (structure, etc.)
 Soil cracking
 Tillage practices
 Method of application (e.g., Basin vs. Furrow)
 Water temperature
Cumulative Infiltration Depth vs. Time
For Different Soil Textures
Infiltration Rate vs. Time
For Different Soil Textures
Water Infiltration Rates and Soil
Texture
Soil Infiltration Rate vs. Constant
Irrigation Application Rate
Soil Infiltration Rate vs. Variable
Irrigation Application Rate
Depth of Penetration
 Can be viewed as sequentially filling the soil
profile in layers
 Deep percolation: water penetrating deeper
than the bottom of the root zone
 Leaching: transport of chemicals from the
root zone due to deep percolation
Water Storage in Layered Soil
Profiles
 Soil Water
Measurement
Gravimetric
•

• Measures mass water content (m)

•
Take field samples  weigh  oven dry  weigh
• Advantages: accurate; Multiple locations
• Disadvantages: labor; Time delay
•

Feel and appearance

•

• Take field samples and feel them by hand

• Advantages: low cost; Multiple locations
• Disadvantages: experience required; Not highly accurate
 Soil Water Measurement
 Neutron scattering (attenuation)
Measures volumetric water content (v)
Attenuation of high-energy neutrons by hydrogen nucleus
Advantages:
○ samples a relatively large soil sphere
○ repeatedly sample same site and several depths
○ accurate
Disadvantages:
○ high cost instrument
○ radioactive licensing and safety
○ not reliable for shallow measurements near the soil surface
 Dielectric constant
A soil’s dielectric constant is dependent on soil moisture
Time domain reflectometry (TDR)
Frequency domain reflectometry (FDR)
Primarily used for research purposes at this time
Soil Water Measurement
Neutron Attenuation
 Soil Water
Measurement
 Tensiometers
Measure soil water potential (tension)
Practical operating range is about 0 to 0.75 bar of
tension (this can be a limitation on medium- and
fine-textured soils)
 Electrical resistance blocks
Measure soil water potential (tension)
Tend to work better at higher tensions (lower water
contents)
 Thermal dissipation blocks
Measure soil water potential (tension)
Require individual calibration
Tensiometer for Measuring Soil Water Potential
Water Reservoir

Variable Tube Length (12 in-

48 in) Based on Root Zone
Depth

Porous Ceramic
Tip
Vacuum Gauge (0-100
centibar)
Electrical Resistance Blocks & Meters
Questions
 Acid Rain
