Network Fundamentals. Internet.

Network

Classifications Protocols Combining Networks Methods of Process Communication Distributed Systems

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 Computer

network classified as:

Local area network (LAN)

A LAN normally consists of a collection of computers in a single building. A MAN is a network of intermediate size such as one spanning community. WAN links machines over a great distance for example neighboring cities.

Metropolitan area (MAN)

Wide area network (WAN)

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 Another

classification of networking is done on the bases of ownership:

Open

Networks internal operations are based on designs that are in the public domain. Networks internal operations are based on designs that are owned and controlled by a particular entity or individual.

Closed

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 Still

another way to classify networks is based on Topology (configuration). Which refers to the pattern in which the machines are connected.

Bus (Ethernet)

All machines are connected to a common communication line called the bus.

Star (Wireless networks with central Access Point)

One machine serves as a central focal point to which all the other machines are connected. The central focal machine is called hub. All machines communicate through an access point(AP)

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For a network to function reliably, it is important to establish rules by which activities are conducted. Such rules are called protocols. Let us consider the problem of coordinating the transmission of messages among the computers.

Without rules all computers will insist on transmitting messages at the same time or fail to assist other machines when that assistance is required.
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 CSMA/CD

(Carrier Sense, Multiple Access with Collision Detection)

Used in Ethernet Machine waits until the bus is silent Silent bus provides right to introduce new message while continuing to monitor the bus.

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CSMA/CD is not compatible with wireless star networks in which all machines communicate through a central AP. This is because a machine may be unable to detect that its transmissions are colliding with those of another. For example:

A machine may not hear the other because its own signal drowns out that of the other machine.

Another reason could be that the signals are blocked by other machines or distance even through they are all connected with central AP.- this is known as hidden terminal problem. 4-11

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CSMA/CA(Carrier Sense, Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)

Avoids collision. If collision occurs retransmits the messages. Used in WiFi Hidden terminal problem The basic difference is that when a machine first needs to transmit a message and finds the communication channel silent , it does not start transmitting immediately rather it waits for a short period of time and then starts transmitting.

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 Sometimes

it is necessary to connect exiting networks to form an extended communication system. This is done by means of different devices:

Repeater: Extends a network. It simply passes signals back and forth between two original buses. Bridge: Connects two compatible networks

Complex than repeater. It connects two buses but does not necessarily pass all the messages across the connection. Instead it looks at the destination address and than forwards them.
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Switch: Connect several compatible networks

It is essentially a bridge with multiple connections, allowing it to connect several buses rather than just two. Thus a switch produces a network consisting of several buses extending from the switch as spokes on a wheel.

Router: Connects two incompatible networks resulting in a network of networks called an internet

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Communication between the processes to coordinate their actions and to perform their designated tasks is called Interprocess Communication.

Client-server

One server, many clients Client initiates communication by making requests of other processes Server must execute continuously and satisfy the request made by the client. Two processes communicating as equals Peer processes can be short-lived
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Peer-to-peer (P2P)

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 Systems

with parts that run on different computers

Infrastructure can be provided by standardized toolkits

Example: Enterprise Java Beans from Sun Microsystems Example: .NET framework from Microsoft

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Internet: An internet that spans the world

Original goal was to develop a means of connecting networks that would not be disrupted by local disasters. Today it has shifted from an academic research project to a commercial undertaking.

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 Internet

is a collection of connected networks that are constructed and managed by organizations called internet Service Providers. Internet Service Provider (ISP)

Tier-1: consists of high-speed, high-capacity, international WANs. Known as backbone of internet. Tier-2: tend to be more regional in scope and less potent in their capabilities.

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 Access

ISP: Provides connectivity to the Internet

Independent internet also called as intranet, operated by a single authority that is in business of supplying internet access to individual users. Traditional telephone (dial up connection) Cable connections DSL Wireless

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 IP

address: pattern of 32 or 128 bits often represented in dotted decimal notation Mnemonic address:

Domain names: unique among all the domain names throughout the internet. Top-Level Domains: e.g. .com

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 Domain

name system (DNS)

Name servers: converting mnemonic addresses into IP addresses before transmitting a message. The conversion is performed with the aid of numerous servers called name serves. These name servers are used as an Internet- wide directory system called DNS. DNS lookup: the process of using the DNS to perform translation is called DNS lookup.

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 Allocates

IP addresses to ISPs who then assign those addresses within their regions. Oversees the registration of domains and domain names.

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 Electronic

Mail (email)

Domain mail server collects incoming mail and transmits outing mail Mail server delivers collected incoming mail to clients via POP3 or IMAP

File

Transfer Protocol (FTP) Telnet and SSH Voice Over IP (VoIP)

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 In

this section we will focus on an Internet application by which multimedia information is spread over the Internet. It is based on the concept of hypertext:

Text documents that contain links, called hyperlinks. Hypertext have expanded to audio and video that is why it is sometimes referred as hypermedia. When using a GUI, the reader of a hypertext document can follow the hyperlinks associated with it by pointing and clicking with the mouse.
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Hypertext

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this manner , a reader of a hypertext documents can explore related documents or follow a train of thought from document to document.

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portions of various documents are linked to other documents, a tangled web of related information is found.

When implemented on a computer network, the documents within such a web can reside on different machines, forming a network wide web.

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 The

web that has evolved on the Internet spans the entire globe and is known as the World Wide Web(WWW or W3)

A hypertext document on the World Wide Web is often called a Web page. A collection of closely related Web pages is called a Web site. WWW had its origins in the work of Tim BernersLee who realized the potential of combining the linked-document concept with internet technology and produced the first software for implementing the WWW in Dec 1990.
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Software packages that allows users to access hypertext on the internet fall into one of two categories:
Packages that play the role of clients Packages that play the role of servers

Client package resides on the users computer and is charged with the tasks of obtaining materials requested by the user and presenting these materials to the user in an organized manner.

It is the client that provides the user interface that allows a user to browse within the Web Hence the client is often referred as a browser or Web browser
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The server package often called the Web server, resides on a computer containing hypertext documents to be accessed.

Its task is to provide access to the documents under its control as requested by clients.

In summary:
A user gains access to hypertext documents by means of a browser residing on the users computer. This browser, playing the role of a client, obtains the documents by soliciting the services of the Web servers scattered throughout the Internet. Hypertext documents are normally transferred between browsers and Web servers using a protocol known as Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP)

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 In

order to locate and retrieve documents on the WWW each document is given a unique address called a Uniform Resource Locator(URL).

Each URL contains the information needed by a browser to contact the proper server and request the desired document. Thus to view a Web page, a person first provides his or her browser with the URL of the desired document and then instructs the browser to retrieve and display the document.

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 Encoded

as text file Contains tags to communicate with browser

Appearance

<h1> to start a level one heading <p> to start a new paragraph

Links

to other documents and content images

<a href = . . . > <img src = . . . >

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Insert

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 XML:

A language for constructing markup languages similar to HTML

A descendant of SGML(Standard Generalized Markup Language) Opens door to a World Wide Semantic Web Used not only for text.

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<staff clef = treble> <key>C minor</key> <time> 2/4 </time> <measure> < rest> egth </rest> <notes> egth G, egth G, egth G </notes></measure> <measure> <notes> hlf E </notes></measure> </staff>

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 But

what if we wanted a Web page involving animation or one that allows a customer to fill out an order form? These needs would required additional activity by either the browser or the Web server.
Such activities are called client-side activities if they are performed by client Server-side activities if performed by a server.

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 Client-side

activities

Examples: java applets, javascript, Macromedia Flash

Server-side

activities

Common Gateway Interface (CGI):

Set of standards by which clients could request the execution of programs stored at a server A variation to CGI is to allow clients to cause program units called servlets to be executed at the clients end. An open source system for implementing server-side functionality.
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Servlets

Persona Home Page(PHP)

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will investigate how messages are transferred over the Internet. This transfer process requires the cooperation of all the computers in the system Therefore software for controlling this process resides on every computer in the Internet We begin by studying the overall structure of this software.
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principal task of networking software is to provide the infrastructure required for transferring messages from one machine to another.

In the internet this message-passing activity is accomplished by means of a hierarchy of software units, which perform tasks analogous to those that would be performed if you were to send a gift in a package from one country to another country.

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 Application:

address Transport: Chops message into packets Network: Handles routing through the Internet Link: Handles actual transmission of packets

Constructs message with

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 The

demand for open networks has generated a need for publishing standards by which manufacturers can supply equipment and software that function properly with products from other venders:
One standard is Open System Interconnection (OSI). This standard is based on a seven-level hierarchy.

TCP/IP

protocol suite is a collection of protocol standards used by the internet to implement the four-level communication hierarchy implemented in the internet.
Transmission Control Protocol(TCP) Internet Protocol (IP)

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 Transport

Layer

TCP User Datagram Protocol(UDP)

Network

Layer

IP (IPv4 and IPv6)

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 Attacks

Malware (viruses, worms, Trojan horses, spyware, phishing software) Denial of service Spam
Firewalls Spam filters Proxy Servers Antivirus software

Protection

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Firewalls A primary prevention technique is to filter traffic passing through a point in the network usually with a program called a firewall.

Spam

filters Server

Firewall designed to block unwanted emails.

Proxy

A software unit that acts as an intermediary between a client and a server with the gold of shielding the client from adverse actions of the server. Antivirus software Represents a broad class of software products each designed to detect and remove a specific type of infection.
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 FTPS,

HTTPS, SSL(Secure Sockets Layer) Public-key Encryption

Public key: Used to encrypt messages Private key: Used to decrypt messages

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