Individual Differences:

Mental Functioning, Emotional Intelligence, Personality Perception, Attitudes, and Values

B = f (P,E)
(Behavior is a function of the person and the environment.)

Why is the study of Individual Differences of interest to managers?

Selection Placement Training Motivation Leadership

Mental Ability
General Intelligence (g factor)
Correlates with most tests of specific ability
Correlates with performance in most jobs

Specific Intelligences (s factors)

e.g., memory verbal comprehension, numerical ability,

word comprehension, perceptual speed Correlate with Job Satisfaction in work utilizing the specific ability in question

Cognitive Styles
How do we gather information?
Sensing - Look at the facts, details.
Intuiting - Brainstorm, get a general overview.

How do we choose between alternatives?

Thinking - Analyze objectively, reason. Feeling - Consider the impact on people.

Cognitive Styles
Sensation / Thinking (ST) (e.g., technician)
Intuitive / Thinking (NT) (e.g., planner)

Sensation / Feeling (SF) (e.g., teacher)

Intuitive / Feeling (NF) (e.g., artist)

Myers-Briggs Test
Has 4 dimensions:
Sensing vs. Intuiting
Thinking vs. Feeling Extraversion vs. Introversion Judger vs. Perceiver (decisive vs. flexible)

Higher and lower positions in each of the dimensions are used to classify people into one of 16 different personality categories.

Emotional Intelligence
Dimensions
1) 2) 3) 4)

Knowing ones own emotions Controlling ones emotions Recognizing others emotions (Empathy) Influencing others emotions Author Daniel Goleman says incompetence in management occurs more often from lack of EQ than lack of IQ

Personality
Nature of Personality

Internal State Uniqueness Consistency Stability

Managers should be aware of subordinates characteristics. Managers should also be aware of their own characteristics.

Personality Theories
Developmental Stage (Psychodynamic)
(Freud, etc.)

Trait-Based (Big Five, etc.)

e.g., Neurotic, Extraversion, Authoritarian (Eysenck)

Motive-Based
e.g., Achievement, Affiliation, Power (McClelland)

Belief-Based
e.g., Internal vs. External Locus of Control (Rotter)

Personality Theory: The Big Five Traits:

Extraversion (vs. Introversion) Sociable, friendly. Emotional Stability (vs. Neuroticism): Neurotics are often critical and feel angry with others and themselves. Agreeableness Likable, care about others. Conscientiousness Careful, persevering. Openness to Experience: Flexible, with broad interests.

Other Characteristics

Self-Monitoring: Tendency to manage impressions others have of you

Risk taking and thrill seeking

Self-Esteem: Degree to which people feel good about themselves and abilities.

Locus of Control
People who believe that they are in control of their

own lives are said to have an Internal locus of control.

People who think that forces beyond their control

dictate what happens to them are said to have an External locus of control.

Testing Intelligence and Personality

When using in selection and placement: Back up with validity studies.
In General:
Intelligence Tests-

Moderate Validity Personality Tests- Low Validity

Perception
The link between the person and the

environment Broadly defined, includes Social Perception (impressions of people)

The Perception Process

Observing data via the senses Screening the data and selecting what to process Organizing the selected data into patterns for interpretation and response

Perception
Why are perceptions often distorted?
Why do people not always perceive things as they are? Why do people perceive things differently? Different people Same person at different times

Sources of Perceptual Distortions

Selectivity (perceiving only part of envir. or some parts more than others)
External Factors (i.e., currently in physical

environment) Similarity, Size, Nearness, Motion Internal Factors Experience, Motivation

Stereotyping Halo Effects Projection

Closure (adding to your perception)

General Perception Problems

Selectivity
Only notice stimuli which are consistent

with our values and beliefs

Closure
Assume that what we dont know is

consistent with what we do know

VALUES AND ATTITUDES

Values (Basic Convictions What is right, good, desirable)

General - Contain many attitudes e.g., Conservative, Liberal, etc.

Attitudes (Beliefs, Assumptions)

Evaluative judgments focused on specific objects,

concepts e.g., Attitude toward welfare payments

Types of Values
Terminal Values
Desired Goals e.g., World Peace, Happiness, Freedom, True

Friendship, Equality, Family Security

Instrumental Values
Means of Achieving Terminal Values e.g., Ambition, Politeness, Self-Reliance, Honesty,

Cheerfulness, Open-Mindedness

Work Values Across Generations

Group Entered Workforce
Veterans 1945-1964

Values
Loyal to Organization Conforming Loyal to Careers Dislike Authority Loyal to Relationships Seek Work-Life Balance

Boomers

1965-1984

Xers

1985-1999

Nexters

2000-Present

Loyal to Self & Relationships Self-Reliant but Team-oriented

ATTITUDES: THE ABC MODEL

Affect
Feelings for an object

Behavioral Intentions
Observed Behavior toward it

Cognition
Beliefs about it

ATTITUDE CHANGE TECHNIQUES

Persuasion Conditioning
Cognition -> Behavior Affective -> Cognition -> Behavior

Cognitive Dissonance Production

Behavior -> Cognition -> Affective (Based on the assumption that people are motivated to protect their self-concepts. This requires a perceived consistency among the three components.)

Thanks