Upca Acoustics Jan 25,2007

ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
The Nature of Sound

Dean Cristopher P. Espina
Professor, College of Architecture,
University of the Philippines, Diliman
1.0 Introduction
1.0 1.1 Definition of Acoustics
Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound Acoustics is a science
which deals with the
3.0 Sound
Measurement
production, control,
and Hearing transmission, reception
and effects of sound in
4.0 Sound an enclosed space.
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 1.2 Acoustical Concerns in Architecture

Introduction
1.2.1 Control of Sound in Room a. the computation of the
2.0 The room’s reverberation
Physics of This involves the following
time (RT)
Sound activities:
3.0 Sound a. a study of the shape of

Measurement the room to control
echoes and to secure the
RT = 0.16 V /
and Hearing
best distribution of sound; ∑A
4.0 Sound
Reflection, c. a study of the shape,
Diffraction design, and location of
and Diffusion and an estimation of the Where V is room volume in
amount of reflective cubic meters
5.0 Sound materials in the room’s
Absorption enclosure to project ∑A is the total absorption in the
sound to the audience; room in METRIC SABINS
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in e. a study of the amount RT is reverberation time in
an Enclosed and location of absorptive seconds
Space materials in a room’s
enclosure to cause sound
to die out in the optimum
reverberation time.
1.0 1.2 Acoustical Concerns in Architecture

Introduction
1.2.2 Noise Control
2.0 The
This involves the following
Physics of
Sound activities:
3.0 Sound a. the control of air-borne noise

Measurement through the insulation of
and Hearing sound or the shutting-out of
unwanted sounds from the
4.0 Sound outside. This requires a study
Reflection, of the sound insulating values
Diffraction of walls, partitions, doors and
and Diffusion windows and a study of the
ventilating systems to provide
5.0 Sound a basis for the reduction of
Absorption the transfer of unwanted
sound from one room to
6.0 Behavior another;
of Sound in
an Enclosed c. the control of structure-borne
Space noises through the isolation of
machines from the room’s or
the building’s structure.
1.0 1.3 Principal Acoustical Defects of Rooms

Introduction
2.0 The a) Prolonged Reverberation – long b) Echo – distinct reflection of

Physics of reverberation time (RT) due to original sound which results
Sound large amounts of highly reflective when the path of reflected
surfaces and/or to large volume of sound is 20 m (65 ft) or more
3.0 Sound space which will take considerable than the path of direct sound. If
Measurement time for reflected sound to die out. the difference is less than 20
and Hearing
m, the reflected sound will
Effect of prolonged reverberation is reinforce the direct sound
4.0 Sound blurring which is harmful to both which is desirable.
Reflection, speech and music.
Diffraction
It is recommended that the
and Diffusion Reverberation time is influenced surfaces of the front part of an
by: auditorium must be highly
5.0 Sound • Volume of the room reflective to reinforce direct
Absorption • Sound absorbing qualities of sound and throw it to the rear
the room’s surfaces of the room. On the other hand,
6.0 Behavior • Number of people and the rear must be highly
of Sound in furniture in the room absorptive so the delayed
an Enclosed
direct sound will the absorbed
Space
and not be reflected to the
front.
1.0 1.3 Principal Acoustical Defects of Rooms

Introduction
c) Resonance – is the reinforcement e) Undue Focusing of Sound – is
2.0 The of certain sound frequencies due caused by concave surfaces
Physics of to sympathetic vibrations. This is which causes sound to
Sound especially the case in enclosed converge at certain points with
rooms with highly reflective resulting loss of energy in other
3.0 Sound surfaces. The effect would be to parts of the room.
Measurement emphasize certain frequencies at
and Hearing the expense of others, which is
undesirable for balance desired in
4.0 Sound rooms intended for music.
Reflection,
Diffraction d) Flutter Echo – a rapid but repetitive
and Diffusion succession of sounds caused by
highly reflective parallel surfaces
5.0 Sound (wall to wall, or ceiling to floor).
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
2.0 The Physics of Sound

1.0 2.1 Sound and Wave Motion
Introduction
Sound is the human ear’s Sound travels in space by a
2.0 The response to pressure phenomenon called wave motion.
Physics of fluctuations in the air caused Wave motion in air is similar to the
Sound by vibrating objects. For motion of a ripple produced by
example, a tap on the wall dropping a pebble into a water pond.
3.0 Sound produces sound because the
Measurement tap makes a wall vibrate. The 2.2 Types of Sound
and Hearing vibrating wall produces
pressure fluctuations in the 1. Speech
4.0 Sound air.
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
2. Music
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed 3. Noise
Space
1.0 2.3 Sound Frequency

Introduction
2.3.1 Frequency (f)
2.0 The
Physics of – the number of sound
Sound ripples generated in unit
time.
3.0 Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion The number of cycles that the air particles move back and
forth in one second in a sound wave is called the frequency
5.0 Sound
of the wave. Its unit is cycles per second (c/s) which is also
Absorption
termed Hertz (Hz) after the Austrian physicist Heinrich
6.0 Behavior Hertz (1857-94).
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.3.2 Frequency - Octaves
2.0 The
Physics of Eight frequency bands, or octaves, are considered in room acoustics
Sound with the following center frequencies: 63 Hz, 125 Hz, 250 Hz, 500 Hz,
1 kHz, 2 kHz, 4 kHz and 8 kHz.
3.0 Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.3.3 Frequency Range for Speech and Music
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound
3.0 Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.3.4 Pitch
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound PITCH is the frequency of sound wave perceived by the
human ear. A high-pitched sound means that it has a high
3.0 Sound frequency. The female voice is slightly higher pitched than
Measurement the male voice.
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 2.4 Sound Velocity and Wavelength

Introduction
2.4.1 Speed (c)
2.0 The
Physics of The speed of sound in air has been measured as 344 m/sec
Sound (1,130 ft/sec). This corresponds to 1,240 km/hr (770
mi/hr) which is extremely small as compared to the speed
3.0 Sound of light (300,000 km/sec).
Measurement
and Hearing The speed of sound in air does not vary with the frequency
of sound or its loudness. Sounds at all audible frequencies,
4.0 Sound regardless of their loudness, travel at the same speed.
Reflection, In solids, the speed of sound (that is, the speed of travel of
Diffraction vibrational energy) is considerably greater than in gases or
and Diffusion in liquids.
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.4.2 Wavelength (λ)
2.0 The
The wavelength and the frequency of sound are related to
Physics of
each other as shown in the equation below.
Sound
3.0 Sound
Measurement c=f λ
and Hearing
c = speed in meters per time
4.0 Sound f = frequency in cycles per time
Reflection, λ = meters
Diffraction
and Diffusion
The greater the frequency of sound, the smaller its
5.0 Sound
wavelength. Thus, the wavelength of sound at 20 Hz is
Absorption
344/20 = 17.2 m (56.5 ft). At 20 kHz, the wavelength is
1.72 cm (0.7 in).
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.4.2 Wavelength (λ)
2.0 The The wavelength of sound corresponding to the center frequencies are
Physics of as shown below:
Sound
3.0 Sound FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH

Measurement (ft) (m)
and Hearing
63 18.0 5.46
4.0 Sound 125 9.0 2.75
Reflection,
Diffraction 250 4.5 1.38
and Diffusion
500 2.3 0.69
5.0 Sound 1,000 1.1 0.34
Absorption
2,000 0.6 0.17
6.0 Behavior 4,000 0.3 0.09
of Sound in
an Enclosed 8,000 0.15 0.04
Space
1.0 2.5 Sound Intensity and Loudness

Introduction
2.5.1 Intensity (or Sound Pressure when measured by a microphone)
2.0 The
Physics of The physical quantity associated with the loudness of sound is its
Sound intensity. It is defined as the amount of sound power falling on (or
passing through, or crossing) a unit area. Since the unit of power is
3.0 Sound watt, the unit of sound intensity is watt per square meter (W/m2).
Measurement
and Hearing The sound intensity which is just audible, called the threshold of
audibility, has been determined to be 10-12 W/m2 , and the intensity
4.0 Sound that corresponds to the sensation of pain in the human ear is
Reflection, approximately 10 W/m2. Thus, the ear responds to a very large
Diffraction range of intensities since the loudest sound is 10,000,000,000,000
and Diffusion times (1013 times) louder than the faintest sound.
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.5.2 Loudness and the Decibel Scale
2.0 The
Physics of LOUDNESS is a
Sound measure of the
intensity of sound
3.0 Sound and is expressed in
Measurement decibels. It is a
and Hearing quantity called the
sound intensity
4.0 Sound level (IL) or, when
Reflection, measured, the
Diffraction sound pressure
and Diffusion level (SPL).
5.0 Sound Table 2.5.2, shows

Absorption some of the typical
noises in our
6.0 Behavior environment and
of Sound in their sound
an Enclosed intensities and
Space sound intensity
levels.

Introduction
2.5.3 Ear’s Perception of Loudness
2.0 The The dB scale also corresponds more directly to the ear’s perception
Physics of of loudness. For instance, a change of 1 dB in sound intensity level
Sound is hardly perceived by the human ear. That is why a sound
intensity level is expressed in a whole number since expressing it
3.0 Sound as a decimal number indicates an unnecessary perception.
Measurement
and Hearing Table 2.5.3 below lists the ear’s perception of change in sound
intensity levels.
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
Change in Level Human Perception
and Diffusion
(dB)
5.0 Sound
1 Imperceptible
Absorption
3 Just perceptible
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in 5 Clearly noticeable
an Enclosed
Space 10 Substantial change

Introduction
2.5.4 Combining Sound Levels
2.0 The Sound levels from different noise sources cannot be added
Physics of arithmetically but must be added logarithmically. For instance, the
Sound resultant sound level of two noise sources, each producing a sound
level of 80 dB, is not 160 dB. The combined sound level of these
3.0 Sound two sources is 83 dB.
Measurement
and Hearing ADDING SOUND LEVELS
An approximate procedure is more commonly used as follows:
4.0 Sound •Step 1: Determine the difference between the two sound levels to
Reflection, be added.
Diffraction •Step 2: Determine the amount to be added to the higher level
and Diffusion from Table 2.5.4A below. This gives the resultant sound level.
5.0 Sound Difference between Decibels to be

two levels to be added added to higher
Absorption (dB) level
6.0 Behavior 0 or 1 3
of Sound in
an Enclosed 2 to 4 2
Space 5 to 9 1
10 or more 0

Introduction
2.0 The For example, let us determine the resultant sound level of 80 dB
Physics of and 84 dB. The difference between the two levels is 4 dB.
Sound Therefore, from the Table, we will add 2 dB to the 84 dB level to
give us the resultant sound level of 86 dB. Thus, 80 dB + 84 dB =
3.0 Sound 86 dB. If the two sound levels are equal (a difference of zero), we
Measurement will add 3 dB to the sound level to obtain the resultant sound level.
and Hearing Thus, 80 dB + 80 dB = 83 dB.
4.0 Sound From the Table, we observe that if two sound levels differ by 10 dB
Reflection, or more, we add nothing to the higher level to obtain the resultant
Diffraction level. In this case, the louder sound determines the overall sound
and Diffusion level entirely. Thus, 80 dB + 90 dB = 90 dB.
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.0 The The procedure can also be used to add a number of sound levels by
Physics of successively adding two levels, as shown in the example as
Sound follows:
3.0 Sound
Measurement
70 dB + 72 dB + 75 dB + 80 dB
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection, 74
Diffraction
and Diffusion 78
5.0 Sound THIS IS THE TOTAL

Absorption 82 dB
SOUND LEVEL
6.0 Behavior
The sum of a number of sound pressure levels
of Sound in may be obtained by adding two levels at a time.
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.0 The However, if there are a number of sources of identical sound levels,
Physics of their addition can be simplified through the use of the following
Sound Table 2.5.4B.
3.0 Sound Difference between two levels to be Decibels to be added to higher

Measurement added (dB) level
and Hearing 2 3
3 5
4.0 Sound
Reflection, 4 6
Diffraction 5 7
and Diffusion 6 8
7 8
5.0 Sound
Absorption 8 9
10 10
6.0 Behavior
15 12
of Sound in
an Enclosed 20 13
Space 50 17
100 20

Introduction
2.0 The SUBTRACTING SOUND LEVELS
Physics of The subtraction of sound levels can also be simplified through the
Sound use of Table 2.5.4C below. For example, assume that the overall
sound level in a space is 85 dB and we wish to eliminate a source
3.0 Sound whose level is 80 db. What will be the resultant sound level in the
Measurement space? In other words, what is 85 dB – 80 dB? From the table, 85
and Hearing – 2 = 83 dB.
4.0 Sound
Reflection, Difference between two levels to be Decibels to be added to
Diffraction added (dB) higher level
and Diffusion 0 10 or more
5.0 Sound 1 7
Absorption 2 4
6.0 Behavior 3 3
of Sound in 4 or 5 2
an Enclosed
6 to 9 1
Space
10 or more 0
1.0 2.6 Sound Attenuation by Distance

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound
3.0 Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
One of the ways in which acoustician’s classify noise sources is
by the size of the source relative to the distance at which the
6.0 Behavior
effect of the source is considered. According to this
of Sound in
classification, a noise source is classified as:
an Enclosed
Space
• a point source, or
• a line source.

Introduction
2.6.1 Point Source and Inverse Square Law
2.0 The
Physics of At a distance greater than or equal to five times the largest
Sound dimension of the source, the source behaves as a point source.
Thus, if the largest dimension of a sound source is 2 ft, it will
3.0 Sound behave as a point source at a distance of 10 ft or greater from the
Measurement source.
and Hearing
More precisely, a point source is one which obeys the
4.0 Sound inverse square law. Assume that the acoustic power of
Reflection, source is W watts. Let us now draw an imaginary sphere of
Diffraction radius R around the source with the source as the center.
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.0 The
Since the area of this sphere is 4πR2 , the intensity of sound on the
Physics of
surface of the sphere is given by:
Sound
3.0 Sound
Measurement
I = W / 4πR2
and Hearing
The above expression gives sound intensity at distance R from the
source. Since quantities W and 4π are constants, we see from the
4.0 Sound
expression that sound intensity is inversely proportional to the
Reflection,
distance squared. Thus, if the distance from the source, P, is
Diffraction
doubled, the intensity of the new point, R, is ¼ x its intensity at
and Diffusion
the previous point. On the other hand, if the distance from the
source is halved, its intensity at this new point, Q, is 4 x the
5.0 Sound
intensity at the previous point.
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound
ANECHOIC SPACE
3.0 Sound
Measurement 2m
INTENSITY =4l Q
and Hearing INTENSITY LEVEL =(lL+6) dB
4.0 Sound 8m 4m
Reflection, R
Diffraction P INTENSITY =l
INTENSITY =0.251
and Diffusion INTENSITY LEVEL =(lL-6) dB INTENSITY LEVEL =(lL) dB
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed Sound intensities and sound intensity levels in a free field. The sound has been assumed to be
non-directional, that is, it radiates equally in all directions.
Space

Introduction
2.6.2 Line Source and Inverse Law
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound
A Line Source is one which contains a large number of point
3.0 Sound sources spread long a line. In practice, free flowing highway
Measurement traffic behaves as a line source. While the sound spreads
and Hearing spherically around a point source, it spreads
cylindrically around a line source.
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction Considering the cylindrical spreading of sound, it can be
and Diffusion shown that the sound intensity due to a line source is
inversely proportional to the distance from the source, a
5.0 Sound law called the inverse law.
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 2.7 Sound Fields

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound A space (or sound field) in which all sound comes directly
from the source (with complete absence of any reflected
3.0 Sound sound) is called a free field, implying ‘freedom’ from
Measurement reflections.
and Hearing
In practice, a free field is obtained in a room specially
4.0 Sound
constructed for this purpose, called the anechoic chamber
Reflection,
Diffraction where all walls, ceiling and the floor are covered with
and Diffusion wedge-shaped sound absorbers.
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
3.0 Sound Measurement and Hearing

1.0 3.1 The Haas Effect
Introduction
The ear’s property to integrate sounds was first discovered by
2.0 The Helmut Haas through experiments conducted on a large number of
Physics of listeners. A listener was set equidistant from two loudspeakers, A &
Sound B in an anechoic chamber (a chamber that is fully absorptive), so
that each loudspeaker subtended an angle of 45 deg at the
3.0 Sound listener. A time delay mechanism was connected to loudspeaker B,
Measurement so that the sound coming from B could be delayed with respect to
and Hearing the sound coming from A.
4.0 Sound DELAY MECHANISM

Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion C
SOUND
A
GENERATOR IMAGINARY
5.0 Sound SPEAKER
Absorption B
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed ANECHOIC
CHAMBER
Space
Experimental set-`up for the Haas effect.

1.0 3.1 The Haas Effect

Introduction
Haas discovered the following:
2.0 The
When sounds coming from A and B arrived at the listener’s ear
Physics of
at the same time and were of equal loudness, the listener
Sound
perceived them as one sound coming from an imaginary
loudspeaker C located right in front of him. In other words,
3.0 Sound
the ear integrated both sounds into one sound, and had the
Measurement
illusion of receiving the sound from a source equidistant
and Hearing
from the two sources. This is called the integration effect.
4.0 Sound
The integration effect occurs even if the sound from B is
Reflection,
delayed, provided that the delay is less than 40
Diffraction
milliseconds, and the level of the sound from B is not more
and Diffusion
than 10 dB above that from A.
5.0 Sound
Stated differently, if the delay between two sounds is up to 40
Absorption
milliseconds and if the delayed sound is no more than 10
dB above the level of the earlier sound, the ear does two
6.0 Behavior
things:
of Sound in
an Enclosed (a) It perceives both sounds as one sound, adding
Space their loudness, and
(b) It thinks that all the sound is coming from A –
the loudspeaker from which the sound came to the
listener first. This is called the precedence effect.
1.0 3.2 Practical Significance of the Haas Effect

Introduction
In an auditorium, the sound reaches a listener in two ways: first
2.0 The the direct sound coming from the speaker and subsequently, the
Physics of reflected sounds coming from the surfaces of the room. Since the
Sound reflected sounds travel a longer path, they are delayed with
respect to the direct sound. The difference between the arrival
3.0 Sound times of direct and reflected sounds is the delay time.
Measurement
and Hearing In a typical auditorium, a listener receives reflected sounds
from various surfaces with different delay times and levels.
4.0 Sound A reflected sound is usually lower in loudness than its direct
Reflection, sound. However, the sounds reflected from some curved
Diffraction surfaces (such as domes and vaults) can focus on a listener,
and Diffusion increasing the level above that of the direct sound.
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound
3.0 Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
Some of the various reflected sound paths, and
5.0 Sound the direct sound path, to a listener in an auditorium.
Absorption
Since domes and vaults are generally avoided in auditoriums, the
6.0 Behavior reflected sound is usually of a lower level than the direct sound.
of Sound in Consequently, in the design of speech auditoriums, we generally
an Enclosed restrict the initial time delay between reflected sound and direct
Space sound to less than 50 milliseconds, which is conservative,
considering that in Haas’ experiment this time delay is for sounds
having the same level.

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of A delay of 50 milliseconds corresponds to a path
Sound
difference of nearly 17 m (55 ft) between the direct
3.0 Sound and reflected sounds. (344m/s x .050 seconds = 17.2
Measurement m) Thus, in the design of speech auditoriums, we
and Hearing require that the path length difference between a
reflected sound and direct sound at the listener should
4.0 Sound not exceed 17 m. In practice, however, a round figure
Reflection, of 20 m (65 ft) is used.
Diffraction
and Diffusion
A longer delay time is acceptable in halls meant for
5.0 Sound music. Typically, a delay time not exceeding 80
Absorption milliseconds is the criterion for music spaces.
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 3.3 Sound Masking

Introduction
Masking is a complex phenomena since it has both
2.0 The neurological as well as sensory bases. That is, masking is not
Physics of simply the property of the ear but also of the brain. For
Sound example, we are often able to hear distant conversations of
particular interest to us (or about us) in a noisy cocktail party.
3.0 Sound If these conversations were not of interest to us, we might
Measurement normally not hear them.
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 3.3 Sound Masking

Introduction
Studies on masking sounds have concluded the following:
2.0 The
Physics of • A sound of a given frequency is more easily masked by a
Sound sound of the same frequency. This means that the further
away the masking sound is in frequency from the frequency of
3.0 Sound the sound to be masked, the greater the sound level of
Measurement masking sound required. For example, to fully mask a 65 dB,
and Hearing 400 Hz tone with another 400 Hz tone requires a level of 80
dB. On the other hand, to completely mask a 65 dB, 1,000 Hz
4.0 Sound tone by a 400 Hz tone, a level far in excess of 80 dB is
Reflection, required.
Diffraction
and Diffusion • Low frequencies are generally more effective in masking
higher frequencies than vice versa, particularly if they are
5.0 Sound loud. Excessive low frequency noises must, therefore, be
Absorption avoided since they constitute a serious source of interference
for both speech and music.
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 3.4 Binaural Hearing

Introduction
Because we have two ears, human hearing is binaural.
2.0 The Binaural hearing helps us locate a sound source in space,
Physics of referred to as sound localization.
Sound
Studies indicate that the ear’s ability to perceive direction of
3.0 Sound sound is due to:
Measurement
and Hearing (5) different arrival times of sound at the two ears (due to path
length and acoustical shadow) and
4.0 Sound
Reflection, (7) different sound levels (also due to path length differential).
Diffraction The ear has the ability of sound localization only in the
and Diffusion horizontal plane. In fact, the ear is able to localize the sound
source in the horizontal plane with an accuracy of 1 or 2
5.0 Sound degrees.
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 3.4 Binaural Hearing

Introduction
If the sound source is located in the vertical plane --- the
2.0 The vertical plane passing through the center of the head and
Physics of midway between the ears --- there is no difference between
Sound the arrival times of sound to the two ears. Consequently, the
ear cannot discriminate between the direction of the sounds in
3.0 Sound the vertical plane.
Measurement
and Hearing This characteristic is used to advantage in establishing the
location of loudspeakers in an auditorium for sound
4.0 Sound amplification. The loudspeakers, formed in clusters, are
Reflection, located in the center of the proscenium. This locates the
Diffraction actual talker, loudspeaker and listener in a vertical plane.
and Diffusion Therefore, the ears are unable to distinguish between the
directions of sound coming from the talker and the
5.0 Sound loudspeaker.
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
4.0 Sound Reflection, Diffraction and Diffusion

1.0 4.1 The Boundary Phenomenon
Introduction
Boundary elements of an enclosure have a profound influence on
2.0 The the behavior of sound in an enclosure. When sound energy falls on
Physics of the boundary of an enclosure, such as a wall or a ceiling, part of
Sound the energy is reflected back into the enclosure, a part is absorbed
within the material of the boundary and converted into heat, and a
3.0 Sound part is transmitted through the boundary element.
Measurement
and Hearing The reflected sound expressed as a fraction of the total sound
energy falling on a boundary element is called the reflection
4.0 Sound coefficient of the element, denoted by rho (ρ). Thus:
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
ρ= reflected sound energy
5.0 Sound incident sound energy
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 4.1 The Boundary Phenomenon

Introduction
The fraction that is transmitted is called the transmission
2.0 The coefficient, and is denoted by tau (τ) and the fraction absorbed is
Physics of alpha (α), called the absorption coefficient. Since the sum of the
Sound reflected, absorbed and transmitted amounts of energy must be
equal to the incident energy, the following relationship must hold
3.0 Sound true:
Measurement
and Hearing
ρ + τ + α = 1.0
An open window, though not absorbing any sound, is considered a
4.0 Sound
perfect acoustical absorber because all the sound falling on the
Reflection,
window is transmitted outdoors. Thus, for an open window, α =
Diffraction
1.0.
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 4.2 Sound Diffraction

Introduction
Diffraction is the ability of sound to bend around an obstacle, so
2.0 The that unlike light which travels in a straight line path, sound bends
Physics of and creates an acoustical shadow smaller than the optical shadow
Sound of light.
3.0 Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
OPTICAL SHADOW ZONE

4.0 Sound
SHADOW ZONE
Reflection,
ACOUSTICAL
Diffraction
SOURCE
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
Acoustical and optical shadows produced by a
an Enclosed source.
Space

Introduction
The degree of bending of sound around an obstacle is a function of
2.0 The the sound’s wavelength or frequency. Low frequency (long
Physics of wavelength) sounds bend by a greater amount than high frequency
Sound (short wavelength) sounds. Thus, the region of acoustical shadow
behind an obstacle is larger for a high frequency sound than for a
3.0 Sound low frequency sound.
Measurement
and Hearing OBSTACLE
OBSTACLE
4.0 Sound
Reflection, HIGH
LOW
FREQUENCY
Diffraction FREQUENCY
SOUND
SOUND
and Diffusion SOURCE
SOURCE
ACOUSTICAL
5.0 Sound ACOUSTICAL

SHADOW
Absorption SHADOW
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in Diffraction of High Frequency Sound Diffraction of Low Frequency Sound
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
The diffraction effect is a function of the dimensions of the obstacle
2.0 The in relation to the wavelength of sound. Research indicate that for a
Physics of plane (rectangular panel) to reflect most of the sound falling on it,
Sound both its dimensions must be at least 5 λ. Thus, the size of the
panel must be at least 3m x 3m (10 ft x 10 ft), if it is to be used as
3.0 Sound a reflector for a 500 Hz sound, since λ for a 500 Hz sound is
Measurement approximately 0.6m (2 ft). When the panel size is equal to λ in
and Hearing both directions, most of the sound will bend around the panel with
very little sound reflected from it.
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
Therefore, for a panel to function as an effective reflector, it is
2.0 The necessary that both its dimensions be at least 5 λ. Sound reflecting
Physics of panels are commonly provided in a speech auditorium to throw
Sound reflected sounds toward the audience. Their size and stiffness are
two important factors that determine their effectiveness as
3.0 Sound reflectors.
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
As far as possible, both dimensions as a reflecting panel
should be at least five times the wavelength of sound to
be reflected.
1.0 4.3 Acoustical Shadows

Introduction The relevance of acoustical shadows is demonstrated in the
following examples:
2.0 The
Physics of An acoustical shadow has an unfavorable effect on hearing
Sound and listening conditions in lecture and concert halls. For
instance, an acoustical shadow is formed by reflected sound
3.0 Sound under a deep balcony in an auditorium. The shadow is deeper
Measurement for high frequency sounds than for low frequency sounds.
and Hearing Since it is the high frequency component of speech that
determines speech intelligibility, poor hearing conditions are
4.0 Sound produced under a deep balcony.
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
Section through an auditorium with a deep balcony showing

the acoustical shadow of ceiling reflected sound.
1.0 4.3 Acoustical Shadows

Introduction
Acoustical shadow is useful in the design of barriers to protect
2.0 The buildings and neighborhoods from traffic noise. Since low
Physics of frequency sounds diffract substantially over the edges of an
Sound obstacle, a traffic noise barrier must be high enough so that the
barrier casts an acoustical shadow over critical areas of the
3.0 Sound buildings to be protected. A traffic noise barrier must also be
Measurement long and extend sufficiently beyond the end of the
and Hearing neighborhood, so that the buildings to be protected fall within
the acoustical shadow zone.
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
Sound diffraction by a
traffic noise barrier
1.0 4.4 Acoustical Transparency

Introduction
4.4.1 Passage of Sound Through Openings
2.0 The
Physics of Diffraction effect also occurs when sound travels through an
Sound opening. This is due to the bending of sound at the opening’s
edges.
3.0 Sound The amount of sound passing through an opening consists of two
Measurement parts:
and Hearing - that contained within the optical zone, and
4.0 Sound - that contained within the peripheral

Reflection, diffracted zone. The diffracted zone is a
Diffraction function of frequency, increasing as the
and Diffusion frequency decreases
5.0 Sound Apart from the frequency, the size of the opening is also a
Absorption determinant of acoustical transparency.
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound
3.0 Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound
3.0 Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
4.4.2 Acoustical Transparency of A Screen
2.0 The
Physics of
The acoustical transparency of a screen is not merely a function of
Sound
its visual transparency and sound frequency, but also a function of
the distribution of voids in the screen.
3.0 Sound
Measurement
For a given visual transparency, small closely spaced voids provide
and Hearing
greater acoustical frequency than large voids spaced further apart.
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of Common used screens:
Sound
Several manufacturers make fabric covered sound absorbing
3.0 Sound panels. Typically, these consist of rigid fiberglass boards held in
Measurement wood or metal frame and wrapped with perforated fire resistant
and Hearing fabrics.
4.0 Sound Perforated plywood, hardwood or metal panels are also used as
Reflection, covering materials.
Diffraction
and Diffusion Metal panels are particularly effective in dusty environments, since
the panels can be taken down, washed and put back in place.
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound
3.0 Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound
3.0 Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 4.5 Diffuse and Specular Reflections

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of To be a good sound reflector, a building element must be
Sound sufficiently large in relation to the wavelength of sound and also
sufficiently stiff –of heavy weight construction.
3.0 Sound
Measurement Sound reflection from a large, heavy and a nonporous surface can
and Hearing be either:
4.0 Sound •Specular reflection

Reflection, •Diffuse reflection
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
4.5.1 Specular Reflection
2.0 The
Physics of Specular reflection is a mirror type reflection, similar to the
Sound reflection of light from a mirror. In specular reflection, the incident
sound beam is reflected off the reflecting surface as per Snell’s law.
3.0 Sound According to this law, the reflected beam makes the same angle
Measurement with (the normal to) the reflecting surface as the incident beam.
and Hearing In other words, the angle of incidence (i) is equal to the angle of
reflection (r).
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
4.5.2 Diffuse Reflection
2.0 The
Physics of In diffuse reflection, the incident sound is reflected equally in all
Sound directions (uniform scattering). Diffuse sound reflection is similar
to the reflection of light by a matt surface or frosted glass.
3.0 Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 4.6 Sound Diffusion

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of If room boundaries consist of sufficiently large surface
Sound irregularities, the sound field in such room will be diffused. A
perfectly diffuse sound field is defined as one in which sound
3.0 Sound arrives at the listener from all possible directions in equal strength.
Measurement
and Hearing Sound diffusion is one of the important acoustical requirements for
rooms used for musical performances. A room with a few large
4.0 Sound specularly reflecting surfaces, and which does not contain adequate
Reflection, surface irregularities to diffuse sound, produces harsh reflections
Diffraction known as acoustic glare – an undesirable effect for music. On the
and Diffusion other hand, with adequate diffusion in the room, the listener
receives sound from various directions and has the feeling of being
5.0 Sound “enveloped” by music – a desirable sensation for music.
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound
3.0 Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
4.6.1 Effect of Room Geometry and Size on Sound Diffusion
2.0 The
Physics of Sound diffusion is a function of room geometry.
Sound
• Rectangular rooms with flat parallel walls have poor
3.0 Sound diffusion.
Measurement • Even a slight splay (1 in 20) in one of the walls in an
and Hearing otherwise rectangular room improves diffusion.
• The more the room deviates from rectangularity, or
4.0 Sound the more irregular the room shape, the greater sound
Reflection, diffusion in the room.
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound
3.0 Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of Size of the room is another factor that affects diffusion.
Sound
• Diffusion is more easily obtained in a large room than
3.0 Sound in a small room
Measurement • Because of its small size, it is difficult to achieve
and Hearing diffusion in a music recording studio or a control room
unless special sound diffusers are used on room
4.0 Sound surfaces.
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
4.6.2 Effect of Sound Absorption on Sound Diffusion
2.0 The
Physics of Reflective room surfaces increase diffusion in the room. The more
Sound reflective the surfaces, the greater the diffusion. Conversely, the
provision of sound absorption decreases diffusion.
3.0 Sound
Measurement Although sound absorption reduces diffusion, the alternate
and Hearing application of sound absorbing patches improves diffusion. The
size of the patches must be of the order of the wavelength of
4.0 Sound sound. Therefore, to produce diffusion over a wide band of
Reflection, frequencies, patches must be of various sizes. Note, however, that
Diffraction alternate application of absorbing patches to obtain diffusion
and Diffusion should be used only in spaces where sound absorption is otherwise
required.
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
4.6.3 Interior Ornamentation
2.0 The
Physics of Pilasters, piers, balconies, exposed beams, coffered ceilings, and
Sound any other surface ornamentation that scatters sound increase
diffusion.
3.0 Sound
Measurement Sufficient diffusion, provided by extensive ornamentation and
and Hearing protruding balconies is considered to be one of the reasons for the
good acoustics of some symphony halls.
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
4.6.4 Diffusion and Convex Reflectors
2.0 The
Physics of Convex reflective surfaces also increase diffusion. They do so by
Sound scattering sound. A concave surface, on the other hand, tends to
focus sound. Focusing is the opposite of diffusion since focusing
3.0 Sound tends to concentrate sound into one direction and location, starving
Measurement other locations of adequate sound. Thus, a dome or similar
and Hearing concave surface provides poor acoustics for an auditorium.
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 4.7 Sound Diffusers

Introduction
2.0 The A sound diffuser is a surface element that produces diffuse

Physics of reflection.
Sound
Any reflective surface with irregularities of size comparable to the
3.0 Sound wavelength of sound will work as a diffuser. The greater the
Measurement randomness in surface irregularities and sizes, the better the
and Hearing diffuser.
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 4.7 Sound Diffusers

Introduction
4.7.1 Quadratic Residue Diffuser
2.0 The The diffusers made from surface modulations have two major
Physics of limitations:
Sound
•The surface protrusions and recesses have to
3.0 Sound be large to provide good diffusion at low
Measurement frequencies.
and Hearing •There is no objective method of determining
the extent of scattering produced by such
4.0 Sound diffusers.
Reflection,
Diffraction A diffuser that overcomes the above limitations is called a
and Diffusion quadratic residue diffuser. A quadratic residue diffuser consists of
an array of linear slits (or wells) of constant width.
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 4.8 Source-Image Relationship in Specular Reflection

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound
3.0 Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 4.8 Source-Image Relationship in Specular Reflection

Introduction
4.8.1 Higher-order Images
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound If there is a set of two reflectors in a space, an image produced by
one reflector works as the source for the other reflector, producing
3.0 Sound an image-of-an-image.
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 4.9 Flutter Echo

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of
If there are two parallel reflectors, we will obtain an infinite
Sound
number of images of the source since each image works as a
source for the other reflector. This may be confirmed by standing
3.0 Sound
between two parallel mirrors; an infinite number of images of the
Measurement
self will be seen.
and Hearing
The above fact implies that if a sound source is located between
4.0 Sound
two parallel reflecting walls, a listener will receive reflected sound
Reflection,
from an infinite number of images.
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.0 4.9 Flutter Echo

Introduction
2.0 The
Physics of Since the speed of sound is 344 m per second, the time gap
Sound between each successive reflected sound will be 87 milliseconds.
This, according to the Haas effect, will produce echoes. Since
3.0 Sound these echoes recur after a regular interval of 87 milliseconds, they
Measurement produce a flutter effect – flutter echo.
and Hearing
Flutter echo is an acoustical defect and must be avoided in
4.0 Sound auditoriums and other assembly spaces. It affects speech
Reflection, intelligibility and produces tonal coloration of music.
Diffraction
and Diffusion Therefore, two parallel reflective walls should be avoided in an
auditorium. Splaying one or both walls of the room by a little as 5
5.0 Sound degrees will usually eliminate the flutter effect. Also, treating one
Absorption of the parallel walls with sound diffusers or sound absorbing
materials will eliminate flutter.
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
5.0 Sound Absorption

1.0 5.1 Rating of Sound Absorbing Materials
Introduction
The standard method of rating the effectiveness of a
2.0 The sound absorbing material is by its absorption
Physics of
Sound coefficient. The absorption coefficient of a material
varies with the angle of incidence of sound – the
3.0 Sound angle at which the sound strikes the surface of the
Measurement
and Hearing
material. However, in most rooms, the sound
strikes its surfaces from all angles with almost equal
4.0 Sound probability. Therefore, we are usually interested in
Reflection, the random incidence absorption coefficient.
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

1.0 5.2 Types of Sound Absorbing Materials
Introduction
Sound absorbing materials may be classified based on the
2.0 The mechanism by which they absorb sound:
Physics of
Sound
c.Porous absorbers
3.0 Sound d.Panel or membrane absorbers
Measurement
and Hearing
e.Volume absorbers
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
a.Porous absorbers
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound Almost any material whose surface is porous may be
considered a porous absorber. The porosity of the material
3.0 Sound may be either due to the fibrous composition, or due to
Measurement voids between granules or particles of the material.
and Hearing Fiberglass and rigid fiberboards are common porous
absorbers.
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction A sound wave falling on a porous absorber causes the air
and Diffusion in the voids of the material to vibrate back and forth. As
the air vibrates in the voids, the vibrational energy of the
5.0 Sound air is converted into heat due to friction between air
Absorption particles and void walls.
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
a.Porous absorbers
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound Porous absorbers are commonly used in low-height office
partitions, and as wall- and ceiling- mounted panels.
3.0 Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
a.Panel or membrane absorbers
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound A solid unperforated panel installed against a hard
substrate with an intervening air space acts as a panel or
3.0 Sound membrane absorber. When a sound wave falls on such a
Measurement panel, it sets the panel into vibration. Since the panel is
and Hearing never fully elastic, it loses some energy by damping.
Damping is a measure of the resistance of a vibratory
4.0 Sound
Reflection, system to sustain vibrations.
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
a.Panel or membrane absorbers
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound Examples of these absorbers are interior drywall, windows,
wood panels and flooring, suspended reflectors and others.
3.0 Sound However, the panel absorber is not a sound absorbing
Measurement material in the same sense as a porous absorber. It is
and Hearing seldom added to building interiors to control noise.
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
a.Volume absorbers
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound Volume absorbers are also known as cavity absorbers,
cavity resonators and Helmhotz resonator. This absorber
3.0 Sound consists of a volume of air connected to the general
Measurement atmosphere through a small volume of air called the neck.
and Hearing A volume absorber is similar to an open bottle where the
volume of air in the bottle is connected to the outside
4.0 Sound
Reflection, atmosphere through the air in the bottle’s neck.
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
a.Volume absorbers
2.0 The
Physics of
Sound The most common application of a volume absorber is the
use of acoustical blocks for noise control in manufacturing
3.0 Sound plants, school gymnasiums, a/c rooms, auditoriums and
Measurement the like.
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
6.0 Behavior of Sound in an Enclosed Space

1.0
Introduction
The primary reason for the difference between the
2.0 The sound produced inside an enclosed space and that
Physics of
Sound produced outdoors is that the sound produced inside
a room bounces back and forth from room surfaces,
3.0 Sound while a sound produced outdoors travels freely away
Measurement
and Hearing
from the source.
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

1.0 6.1 Impulse Response of a Room
Introduction
A sound impulse is a short “burst” of sound such as that
2.0 The generated by pricking a balloon or by a hand clap in a
Physics of large room. These sounds do not die instantaneously,
Sound instead, persists for a while, then, decreases in level over
time.
3.0 Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
a)The Reverberation Phenomenon
2.0 The
Physics of The persistence of sound in a room after it is turned off is
Sound related to the amount of absorption in the room. In fact,
as soon as a sound is produced, it travels in space in
3.0 Sound
Measurement various directions and hits room surfaces, from which it is
and Hearing reflected and rereflected. At each reflection, some energy
is lost by absorption, and eventually all the sound is
4.0 Sound depleted.
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
a)Directional Distribution of Reflections
2.0 The
Physics of The directional distribution of sound is particularly
Sound important in halls meant for music. Sound coming from
many different directions creates a sense of “volume” or
3.0 Sound
Measurement “envelopment” in the room – an important requirement for
and Hearing the appreciation of music.
4.0 Sound
Reflection,
Diffraction
and Diffusion
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space

Introduction
a)Impulse Diagram
2.0 The
Physics of In an impulse diagram, the vertical axis represents the
Sound sound level and the horizontal axis represents the times of
arrival of impulses. Each impulse is or a lower level than
3.0 Sound
Measurement the one preceding it, showing a gradual decrease in sound
and Hearing level over time. This progressive decrease is a
consequence of two factors:
4.0 Sound
Reflection,  Increasingly higher-order images are weaker in
Diffraction power
and Diffusion  They are farther away from the listener
5.0 Sound
Absorption
6.0 Behavior
of Sound in
an Enclosed
Space
1.5 GLOSSARY OF IMPORTANT ACOUSTICAL TERMS
• absorption coefficient – the fraction of the incident sound
energy absorbed by a surface.
• anechoic chamber – a sealed room in which all the surfaces

are designed to completely absorb all sound produced in the
room.
• attenuation – a reduction in sound level. Sound attenuation in

air-conditioning is specified in terms of dB per meter.
• background noise – ambient noise
• break-in noise – transfer of noise from a space surrounding

the duct into the duct through duct walls.
• break-out noise – transfer of noise from the interior of a duct

through duct walls into a space outside the duct.
• dead room – a room containing an unusually large amount of

sound absorption..
• decibel (dB) – a unit of measurement for sound pressure level,

sound intensity level or sound power level.
• diffraction – a change in the direction of propagation of sound
as a result of bending caused by a barrier in the path of a sound
wave.
• diffuse sound (field) – a sound field in which the sound comes

in equal intensity from all directions.
• direct sound – the sound that arrives at a receiver along a direct

line from the source without reflection from any surface.
• echo – a sound that has been reflected with sufficient time

delay.
• environmental noise – exterior background noise in a

neighborhood (ie. traffic, aircraft).
• fidelity – faithful reproduction of a sound source.
• flutter echo – a rapid but repetitive succession of sound from a

sound source usually occurring as a result of multiple
reflections in a space with hard, flat and parallel walls.
• frequency – the number of full cycles per second measured.

• impact noise – noise caused by the collision of two objects.
• infrasonic – a sound that is below the human audible

frequency, below 20 Hz.
• insulation – see isolation
• intermittent sound – a sound which is discontinuous or

fluctuates to such an extent that at times its sound pressure
level falls below a measurable level.
• inverse square law – a law which states that the sound

intensity in a free field varies inversely with the square of the
distance from the source.
• isolation – a lack of acoustical connection.
• leak – a small opening in a barrier that allows airborne sound

to pass through.
• live room – a room containing an unusually small amount of

sound absorption.
• loudness – an auditory sensation that depends on sound
pressure level and the frequency of sound.
• masking – the increase in the threshold of audibility of a sound

that is required so that the sound can be heard in the presence
of another sound.
• noise isolation class (NIC) – a single number rating derived from

the measured value of noise reduction between two rooms.
• noise reduction (NR) – the reduction in sound pressure level of

noise.
• noise reduction coefficient (NRC) – a single number rating

derived from measured values of sound absorption coefficients
of a material at 250, 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz.
• outdoor-indoor transmission class (OITC) – a weighted single

number rating of the sound reduction effectiveness of a partition
that separates an indoor space from the outside.
• pitch – a listener’s perception of the frequency of a pure tone.

• reflection coefficient – a measure of the sound reflective

property of a surface.
• resonance – the relatively large amplitude of vibration

produced when the frequency of the source of sound is equal
to the natural frequency of a room.
• reverberant sound field – a sound field created by repeated

reflections of sound from the boundaries in an enclosed space.
• reverberation – the continuation of sound in an enclosed

space after the initial source has been terminated.
• reverberation time (RT) – the time it takes for sound intensity

to decay by 1 millionth of its steady state value after the sound
source has been terminated.
• sabin – a unit of measure of sound absorption.
• scattering – an irregular diffraction of sound in many

directions.
• sound insulation – the ability of a barrier to prevent sound from
reaching a receiver.
• sound intensity (SI) – the average rate of sound energy flow

through a unit area in a given direction.
• sound intensity level (SIL) – a quantity expressed in decibels

of airborne sound.
• sound lock – a small space that works as a buffer between a

source room and a receiving room.
• sound pressure – fluctuating pressure of sound superimposed

on the static air pressure.
• sound pressure level – see sound intensity level
• sound transmission class (STC) – a single number rating of

the sound insulation rating of a partition.
• structure-borne sound – sound propagated through a solid

structure.
• transmission coefficient – the ratio of transmitted sound

energy to incident sound energy
• transmission loss (TL) – is the measure of sound insulation of

a partition.
• wavelength – distance between two adjacent compressions or

rarefactions in a sound wave.
• white noise – a noise whose energy is uniform over a wide

range of frequencies. This is analogous to the term “white
light”, which consists of almost equal amount of light of
different wavelength (colors). A white noise sounds hissy.
THANK YOU! THE END

Upca Acoustics Jan 25,2007

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Upca Acoustics Jan 25,2007

Uploaded by

Copyright:

ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS

The Nature of Sound

1.0 1.2 Acoustical Concerns in Architecture

3.0 Sound a. a study of the shape of

1.0 1.2 Acoustical Concerns in Architecture

3.0 Sound a. the control of air-borne noise

1.0 1.3 Principal Acoustical Defects of Rooms

2.0 The a) Prolonged Reverberation – long b) Echo – distinct reflection of

1.0 1.3 Principal Acoustical Defects of Rooms

2.0 The Physics of Sound

1.0 2.3 Sound Frequency

1.0 2.3 Sound Frequency

1.0 2.3 Sound Frequency

1.0 2.3 Sound Frequency

1.0 2.4 Sound Velocity and Wavelength

1.0 2.4 Sound Velocity and Wavelength

1.0 2.4 Sound Velocity and Wavelength

3.0 Sound FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH

1.0 2.5 Sound Intensity and Loudness

1.0 2.5 Sound Intensity and Loudness

5.0 Sound Table 2.5.2, shows

1.0 2.5 Sound Intensity and Loudness

1.0 2.5 Sound Intensity and Loudness

5.0 Sound Difference between Decibels to be

1.0 2.5 Sound Intensity and Loudness

1.0 2.5 Sound Intensity and Loudness

5.0 Sound THIS IS THE TOTAL

1.0 2.5 Sound Intensity and Loudness

3.0 Sound Difference between two levels to be Decibels to be added to higher

1.0 2.5 Sound Intensity and Loudness

1.0 2.6 Sound Attenuation by Distance

1.0 2.6 Sound Attenuation by Distance

1.0 2.6 Sound Attenuation by Distance

1.0 2.6 Sound Attenuation by Distance

1.0 2.6 Sound Attenuation by Distance

1.0 2.7 Sound Fields

3.0 Sound Measurement and Hearing

4.0 Sound DELAY MECHANISM

Experimental set-`up for the Haas effect.

1.0 3.1 The Haas Effect

1.0 3.2 Practical Significance of the Haas Effect

1.0 3.2 Practical Significance of the Haas Effect

1.0 3.2 Practical Significance of the Haas Effect

1.0 3.3 Sound Masking

1.0 3.3 Sound Masking

1.0 3.4 Binaural Hearing

1.0 3.4 Binaural Hearing

4.0 Sound Reflection, Diffraction and Diffusion

1.0 4.1 The Boundary Phenomenon

1.0 4.2 Sound Diffraction

OPTICAL SHADOW ZONE

1.0 4.2 Sound Diffraction

5.0 Sound ACOUSTICAL

1.0 4.2 Sound Diffraction

1.0 4.2 Sound Diffraction

1.0 4.3 Acoustical Shadows

Section through an auditorium with a deep balcony showing

1.0 4.3 Acoustical Shadows

1.0 4.4 Acoustical Transparency

4.0 Sound - that contained within the peripheral

1.0 4.4 Acoustical Transparency

1.0 4.4 Acoustical Transparency

1.0 4.4 Acoustical Transparency

1.0 4.4 Acoustical Transparency

1.0 4.4 Acoustical Transparency

1.0 4.4 Acoustical Transparency

1.0 4.5 Diffuse and Specular Reflections