INSULATOR

The British Standard Specification gives particulars of porcelain only, and requires that "the porcelain shall be ivory white, sound, free from defects, and thoroughly vitrified so that the glaze is not depended upon for insulation". This thorough verifications of the porcelain is of paramount importance, since the presence of pores or other air-spaces will lower the dielectric strength.

There are three types used in connection with overhead lines, viz. : Pin-type. Suspension-type. Strain-type.

Pin-type.
The pin-type insulator is attached to a steel bolt or pin, which is secured to a cross-arm on the transmission pole. The above-mentioned British Standards Specification requires that the porcelain shall not engage directly with a hard metal screw. B.S. 137 recognises two methods: 1- The provision of a taper thread cut on the head of the pin, which screws into a threaded soft metal thimble cemented into the insulator. 2- The provisions of a cast lead thread on the steel spindle, which screws directly into a thread formed in the porcelain; on the continent the pin, which has a plain top, is still sometimes wrapped in hemp and the threaded porcelain screwed on.

For operating voltages : up to about 25,000 with ordinary designs of insulator a one-piece construction can be adopted, up to about 45,000 volts a two-piece, up to 66,000 volts a three-piece, and beyond this a four-piece insulator.

 Recent progress in design and manufacture has enabled much thicker sections to be adopted, with the result that for working voltages up to 33,000 a single-piece construction is possible, and not more than two parts even in the largest sizes. Actually, the tendency is to use pin-type insulators for voltages up to 50,000 only, since they become uneconomical for higher voltages. This is because their cost increases much more rapidly than the voltage.

 the ratio of average initial cost per mile of pin-type to suspension-type is about three to four or five, but the cost of replacement for suspension insulators is usually much lower than for pin-type.

Pin Insulators 33 kV

Pin Insulators 22 kV / 33 kV

Pin Insultors 11 kV

Suspension Insulators
the cost of a pin-type insulator increases very rapidly as the working voltage is increased. For high voltages this type is therefore uneconomical, and there is the further disadvantage that replacements are expensive. For these reasons, high-voltage lines are insulated by means of suspension insulators in which, as their name indicates, the line conductor is suspended below the point of support by means of the insulator or insulators.

 This ten-inch pattern (next slide) has been found very suitable for lines up to and including 33,000 volts, where the conditions of mechanical loading allow of its use. Since the ultimate mechanical strength is decided by the steel links, and not by the porcelain, this pattern is very strong and has the peculiar advantage that the breaking of a porcelain disc will not allow the line to fall, or, in fact, interrupt the service, if a string of several units is used.

ten-inch suspension insulator.

Strain Insulators
These insulators are used to take the tension of the conductors at line terminals and at points where the line is deadended, as for example some roadcrossings, junctions of overhead lines with cables, river crossings, at angle towers where there is a change in direction of the line, and so on.

 For light low-voltage lines, say up to 11,000 volts, the shackle insulator is suitable, but for higher voltages a string of suspension-type insulators is necessary. Where the tension is exceedingly high, as at long river spans, two, three, or even four strings of insulators in parallel have been used.

 Tension Insulators

Advantages of using pin insulators

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Disadvantages of suspension insulators

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Testing of Insulators

 B.S. 137 groups the tests made on insulators into three categories: flash-over tests (a design test taken to three insulators only to prove the correction of the design) sample tests (to prove the quality of manufacture) routine tests (carried out on all insulators)

Flashover Tests
50 per cent. dry impulse flash-over test. Dry flash-over and dry one-minute test. Wet flash-over and one-minute rain test.

50 per cent. dry impulse flash-over test.

The test is made on a clean insulator mounted as far as possible in the normal manner. The impulse generator delivers a positive 1/50 microsecond impulse wave of amplitude such that about half of the impulses applied cause flash-over of the insulator. The polarity is then reversed, a negative 1/50 impulse being applied. There must be at least 20 applications of the impulse in each case, and the insulator must not be damaged.

Dry flash-over and dry one-minute test.

A voltage of power frequency is applied to a clean insulator mounted as fas as possible in the normal manner, and the voltage gradually increased up to the specified value. This voltage is maintained for one minute. The voltage is then increased gradually until flash-over occurs. The insulator is then flashed-over at least four more times, the voltage being raised gradually to reach flash-over in about 10 seconds.

Wet flash-over and one-minute rain test.

The insulator is sprayed with water of resistance 9,000 - 11,000 ohm-cm., drawn from a source of supply at a temperature within 10 C of the ambient temperature in the neighborhood of the insulator under test, and directed at an angle of 45 degrees, the volume of water being equivalent to a precipitation of 0.12 in. per minute. The insulator must withstand the test-voltage specified for one minute. The insulator with 50 per cent. of the one-minute rain testvoltage applied to it is then sprayed for two minutes, the voltage raised to the one-minute test-voltage in approximately 10 seconds and maintained there for one minute. The voltage is then gradually raised until flash-over occurs, and the insulator is then flashed at least four more times, the time taken to reach the voltage being in each case about 10 seconds.

Sample Tests:
Temperature-cycle test. Mechanical test. Electro-mechanical test. Puncture test. Porosity test.

Temperature-cycle test.
In the temperature-cycle test, the insulator is subjected three times to the following temperature cycle: immersed for T minutes in a water-bath at not less than 70 C. higher than that of the main water, taken out, and immersed as quickly as possible in a main water bath and left in this bath for T minutes. T = (15 + W/3) where W = wt. of insulator in lbs. The insulator must withstand this series of tests without damage to the porcelain or glaze.

Mechanical test.
Applied to pin insulators and line post insulators. The test is a bending test, in which a load of three times the specified maximum working load (twice for a post insulator) is applied for one minute. There must be no damage to the insulator, and in the case of the post insulator the permanent set must be less than 1 per cent. In the case of the post insulator, the load is then raised to three times, and there must be no damage to the insulator or its pin (or pins). A permanent set-test is also made on the pin-type. A load of twice the maximum, applied for one minute, must not produce a permanent set of more than 1 per cent.

Electro-mechanical test.
In this test, which is applied to suspension or tension units only, the insulator is mechanically stressed to a tension of 2 1/2 times the specified maximum working load, this being maintained for one minute. Simultaneously, 75 per cent. of the dry spark-over voltage is applied.

Puncture test.
In the case of pin or post insulators, the voltage is applied between the pin and [the] lead foil bound over the top and side grooves. In the case of suspension units, between the metal fittings; the insulator is completely immersed in insulating oil at room temperature, and the voltage raised as rapidly as is consistent with correct measurement. The insulator must not be punctured. Alternatively, an impulse over-voltage test may be made in this case in air with the insulator arranged as for flash-over tests, a negative polarity 1/50 microsecond wave is applied of twice the amplitude of the negative 50 per cent. impulse flash-over voltage, as determined in test (a) above (i.e. a prospective voltage of twice the 50 per cent. flash-over voltage). Twenty such impulses shall then be applied. The procedure [is] to be repeated at prospective voltages of 2.5, 3, 3.5 ... [etc] times the 50 per cent. flash-over voltage, and continued until the insulator is punctured or the limit of the generator reached. The insulator, to pass the test, must not be punctured by prospective voltages of three times, or less, the flash-over voltage.

Porosity test.
Pieces freshly broken from a complete finished insulator to show no signs of impregnation (when further broken) after being immersed for 24 hours in a 0.5 per cent. alcohol solution of fuchsin under a pressure of 2,000 lbs. per sq. in.

Routine Tests:
Electrical routine test. Mechanical routine test.

Electrical routine test.

Pin insulators are inverted, and immersed in water sufficiently deep to cover the attachment to the neck groove; the spindle hole is also filled with water. The test is commenced at a low voltage, which is increased rapidly until a flash-over occurs every few seconds. The voltage is maintained at this value for at least five minutes, or if failures occur, for five minutes after the last punctured piece has been removed. At the conclusion, the voltage is reduced to about one-third of the testvoltage before switching off. With suspension units there is, of course, no necessity for water immersion.

Mechanical routine test.

After assembly, every string insulator unit is suspended in a horizontal or vertical position, and a tensile load 20 per cent. in excess of the maximum specified working load applied for one minute.

TABURAN BEZAUPAYA DALAM PENEBAT RANGKAIAN

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