Transaction Management, Concurrency Control and Recovery

Chapter 20

Overview

What are transactions? What is a schedule? What is concurrency control? Why we need concurrency control:

Three problems. Theory:

Serializabiltiy and Concurrency control:

Conflict Serializability View Serializability Locking Time-stamping Optimistic techniques

Practice:

Recovery facilities
2

What is a Transaction?
Transaction Action, or series of actions, carried out by user or application, which accesses or changes contents of database.

Logical unit of work on the database. Transforms database from one consistent state to another, although consistency may be violated during transaction. Example: Read(staffNo, salary) salary=salary * 1.1 write(staffNo , salary)
3

What is a Transaction?

Can have one of two outcomes: Success - transaction commits and database reaches a new consistent state. Failure - transaction aborts, and database must be restored to consistent state before it started (rolled back or undone). Committed transaction cannot be aborted. Aborted transactions that are rolled back can be restarted later.

Properties of Transactions
Four basic (ACID) properties of a transaction are: Atomicity Consistency All or nothing property. Must transform database from one consistent state to another. Partial effects of incomplete transactions should not be visible to other transactions. Effects of a committed transaction are permanent and must not be lost because of later failure.

Isolation

Durability

We deal with transactions in a schedule.

Schedule
Start with t0 or t1

Running Transactions

Data Items affected by transactions (optional)

Time
Order of execution
t0 t1

T1
Begin Transaction Read(Balance1)

T2

T3

Balance1
100

Balance2
200 200

Begin Transaction

100 Begin Transaction Read(Balance2)

t2
t3 t4 t5 : : Balance1 += 500 Write(Balance1)

Read(Balance1)

100
100 600

200
200 200 200 :

Commit :

Read(Balance1) :

600 :

Schedule Rules

Never start two transactions at the same time. Never perform Reads and Writes of different transactions at the same time. Each transaction should end with a commit or abort (rollback).

Schedule Definitions
Schedule Sequence of reads/writes by set of concurrent transactions. Serial Schedule Schedule where operations of each transaction are executed consecutively without any interleaved operations from other transactions.

No guarantee that results of all serial executions of a given set of transactions will be identical. (Think of an example)

Non-Serial Schedule Schedule where operations from set of concurrent transactions are interleaved
8

Example of a Serial Schedule

Time
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6

T1
Begin Transaction Read(Balance1) Balance1 += 500 Commit

T2

Begin Transaction Read(Balance1) Commit

Example of a non-Serial Schedule

Time
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 Balance1 += 500 Commit Read(Balance1) Read(Balance1) Commit

T1
Begin Transaction

T2

Begin Transaction

10

What is Concurrency Control?

Concurrency: transactions running simultaneously. Concurrency Control: Process of managing simultaneous operations (transactions) on the database without having them interfere with one another.

Prevents interference when two or more users are accessing database simultaneously and at least one is updating data.

Although two transactions may be correct in themselves,

interleaving of operations may produce an incorrect result.
11

Why we Need Concurrency Control?

Three examples of potential problems caused by concurrency:

Lost update problem. Uncommitted dependency problem.

Inconsistent analysis problem.

12

Lost Update Problem

Time t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 begin-transaction read(balx) balx = balx -10 write(balx) commit T1 T2 begin-transaction read(balx) balx = balx +100 write(balx) commit balx 100 100 100 200 90 90

Successfully completed update is overridden by another user. T1 withdrawing 10 from an account with balx, initially 100. T2 depositing 100 into same account. Serially, final balance would be 190. Loss of T2s update avoided by preventing T1 from reading balx until after update
13

Uncommitted Dependency Problem

Time
t1 t2 t3 t4 begin_transaction

T3

T4
begin-transaction read(balx) balx = balx +100 write(balx)

balx
100 100 100 200

t5
t6 t7 t8

read(balx)
balx = balx -10 write(balx) commit

:
rollback

200
100 190 190

Occurs when one transaction can see intermediate results of another transaction before it has committed. T4 updates balx to 200 but it aborts, so balx should be back at original value of 100. T3 has read new value of balx (200) and uses value as basis of 10 reduction, giving a new balance of 190, instead of 90. Problem avoided by preventing T3 from reading balx until after T4 14 commits or aborts.

Inconsistent Analysis Problem

Occurs when transaction reads several values but second transaction updates some of them during execution of first.

Sometimes referred to as dirty read or unrepeatable

read.

T6 is totaling balances of account x (100), account y (50), and account z (25).

Meantime, T5 has transferred 10 from balx to balz, so T6

now has wrong result (10 too high).
15

Inconsistent Analysis Problem

Problem avoided by preventing T6 from reading balx and balz until after T5 completed updates.
16

Serializability

Serializability is a property of a schedule:

We say serializable schedule and non-serializable schedule.

But what makes a schedule serializable?

A serializable schedule is a non-serial schedule that

allows transactions to execute concurrently without

interfering with one another.

In other words, a non-serial schedule that is equivalent to

some serial schedule.

Main goal is to prevent transactions interfering with each other (3 problems discussed earlier).
17

Serializability

Two types of seriailizability:

Conflict. View.
Serializability

Theory

Practice

Conflict Serializability Test

18

View Serializability Test

Locking

Timestamping

Optimistic

Conflict Serializability

In serializability, ordering of read/writes is important: conflict and order is not important.

(a) If two transactions only read a data item, they do not (b) If two transactions either read or write completely

separate data items, they do not conflict and order is

not important. (c) If one transaction writes a data item and another reads

or writes same data item, order of execution is

important. They conflict.
19

Conflict Serializability

Schedule S1 is conflict serializable if it is conflict equivalent to a serial schedule.

Two ways of testing a schedule for conflict serialiazibility:

1.

2.

A schedule is conflict serializable if you can switch order of 2 non-conflicting operations until you reach a serial schedule. Precedence graph.

20

Testing for Conflict Serializability

Time t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 T7 begin-transaction read(balx) write(balx) begin_transaction read(balx) write(balx) read(baly) T8 T7 begin-transaction read(balx) write(balx) begin_transaction read(balx) T8

t7
t8 t9 t10 t11 t12

read(baly)
write(baly) commit read(baly) write(baly) commit write(baly) commit

write(balx)

read(baly) write(baly) commit

21

Testing for Conflict Serializability

Time t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 read(baly) read(balx) T7 begin-transaction read(balx) write(balx) begin_transaction T8 T7 begin-transaction read(balx) write(balx) read(baly) write(baly) commit begin_transaction read(balx) read(baly) write(baly) commit write(balx) read(baly) T8

t7
t8 t9 t10 t11 t12 write(baly) commit

write(balx)

write(baly)
commit

22

Non-conflict Serializable Schedule

Time t1 t2 t3 t4 T7 begin-transaction read(balx) begin_transaction write(balx) T8 T7 begin-transaction read(balx) write(balx) commit T8

t5
t6 t7

write(balx)
commit commit

begin_transaction
write(balx) commit

23

Testing for Conflict Serializability Precedence Graph

Create:

node for each transaction; a directed edge Ti Tj, if Tj reads the value of an item written by Ti; a directed edge Ti Tj, if Tj writes a value into an item after it has been read by Ti. a directed edge Ti Tj, if Tj writes a value into an item after it has been written by Ti.

If precedence graph contains cycle, schedule is not conflict serializable.

24

Test Schedule: Is it conflict serializable?

Time t1 t2 T7 begin-transaction read(balx) T8

t3
t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t9 t10 t11

balx = balx +100

write(balx) begin_transaction read(balx) balx = balx * 1.1 write(balx) read(baly) baly = baly * 1.1 write(baly)

t12
t13 t14 t15
25

commit
read(baly) write(baly) commit

View Serializability

Offers less stringent definition of schedule equivalence than conflict serializability.

Two schedules S1 and S2 are view equivalent if:

For each data item x, if Ti reads initial value of x in S1, Ti must also read initial value of x in S2.

For each read on x by Ti in S1, if value read by x is written by Tj, Ti must

also read value of x produced by Tj in S2.

For each data item x, if last write on x performed by Ti in S1, same transaction must perform final write on x in S2.

26

View Serializability

Schedule is view serializable if it is view equivalent to a serial schedule.

Every conflict serializable schedule is view serializable, although converse is not true.
All Schedules
View Serializable Schedules Conflict Serializable Schedules

It can be shown that any view serializable schedule that is not conflict serializable contains one or more blind writes.
27

View Serializable Schedule

Time t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 T7 begin-transaction read(balx) write(balx) read(baly) write(baly) commit T8 T7 begin-transaction read(balx) write(balx) begin_transaction read(balx) write(balx) T8

t7
t8 t9 t10 t11 t12

begin-transaction
read(balx) write(balx) read(baly) write(baly) commit

read(baly)
write(baly) commit read(baly) write(baly) commit

28

View Serializable Schedule

Time t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 write(balx) T11 begin-transaction read(balx) begin_transaction write(balx) commit T12 T13

t7
t8 t9 t10

commit
begin_transaction write(balx) commit

Is this schedule conflict serializable?

29

Recoverable Schedule

A schedule where, for each pair of transactions Ti and Tj, if Tj reads a data item previously written by Ti, then the commit operation of Ti precedes the commit operation of Tj.

30

Concurrency Control Techniques

Serializability

Theory

Practice

Conflict Serializability Test

View Serializability Test

Locking

Timestamping

Optimistic

31

Concurrency Control Techniques

Two basic concurrency control techniques:

Locking, Timestamping.

Both are conservative approaches: delay transactions in case they

conflict with other transactions.

Optimistic methods assume conflict is rare and only check for conflicts at commit.

32

Concurrency Control Techniques Overview

Locking

Timestamping

Optimistic

Basic Rules

2PL

Deadlock Prevention

Deadlock Detection

Basic Timestamp Ordering

Multi-version Time-stamp Ordering

Regular Strict 33

Rigorous

Time outs

WaitDie

Wound -Wait

Wait-for Graph

Thomass Write Rule

Locking
Main Idea: Transaction uses locks to deny access to other transactions and so prevent incorrect updates.

Most widely used approach to ensure serializability. A transaction must claim:

a shared (read) on x before it can read it. or an exclusive (write) lock on x before it can write it.

Lock prevents other transactions from reading or writing the

locked data item.
34

Locking Basic Rules

Shared Lock:

If transaction has shared lock on item, it can read but not update item. More than one transaction can hold a shared lock on an item.

Exclusive Lock:

If transaction has exclusive lock on item, can both read and update item. Only one transaction can hold an exclusive lock on an item.

Some systems allow transaction to:

upgrade read lock to an exclusive lock. downgrade exclusive lock to a shared lock.

35

Locking -- Commands

To acquire a shared (read) lock on X:

Read_Lock(x) RLock(X) Shared_Lock(X) SLock(X)

To acquire an exclusive (write) lock on X:

Write_Lock(X) WLock(X) Exclusive_Lock(X) XLock(X)

To release a lock on X:

Unlock(X)

36

Time t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t9 t10 t11 t12 t13 t14 t15 t16 t17 t18 t19 t20 t21 t22

T9 begin-transaction write_lock(balx) read(balx) balx = balx + 100 write(balx) unlock(balx)

T10

begin_transaction write_lock(balx) read(balx) balx = balx * 1.1 write(balx) unlock(balx) write_lock(baly) read(baly) baly = baly * 1.1 write(baly) commit/unlock(baly) write_lock(baly) read(baly) baly = baly - 100 write(baly) commit/unlock(baly)

Correct use of locks. But is the execution correct?

Two-Phase Locking (2PL)

We just saw that locking alone doesnt always work. Solution: 2PL.

Transaction follows 2PL protocol if all locking operations precede first unlock operation in the transaction.

Two phases for transaction:

Growing phase - acquires all locks but cannot release any locks.

Shrinking phase - releases locks but cannot acquire any new locks.

With 2PL, we can prevent the three problems.

38

Original Lost Update Problem

Time t1 t2

T1 begin-transaction

T2 begin-transaction read(balx)

balx 100 100

t3
t4 t5 t6

read(balx)
balx = balx -10 write(balx) commit

balx = balx +100

write(balx) commit

100
200 90 90

39

Preventing Lost Update Problem

Time T1 begin_transaction write_lock(balx) WAIT WAIT T2 balx

t1
t2 t3 t4 t5

begin-transaction
write_lock(balx) read(balx) 100 balx = balx +100 write(balx)

100
100 100 200

t6
t7 t8 t9 t10

WAIT
read(balx) balx = balx -10 write(balx) commit/unlock(balx)

commit/unlock(balx)

200
200 200 190 190

40

Original Uncommitted Dependency Problem

Time t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6

T3

T4 begin-transaction read(balx) balx = balx +100

balx 100 100 100 200 200 100

begin_transaction read(balx) balx = balx -10

write(balx) : rollback

t7
t8

write(balx)
commit

190
190

41

Preventing Uncommitted Dependency Problem

Time T3 T4 balx

t1
t2 t3 t4 t5 begin_transaction write_lock(balx)

begin-transaction
write_lock(balx) read(balx) 100 balx = balx +100 write(balx)

100
100 100 200

t6
t7 t8 t9 t10

WAIT
read(balx) balx = balx -10 write(balx) commit/unlock(balx)

commit/unlock(balx)

200
200 200 190 190

42

Original Inconsistent Analysis Problem

43

Preventing Inconsistent Analysis Problem

44

A Potential Problem with 2PL

45

Cascading Rollbacks

If every transaction in a schedule follows 2PL, schedule is serializable. However, problems can occur with interpretation of when locks can be released.

Cascading rollback is undesirable since they potentially lead to the undoing of a significant amount of work

To prevent this with 2PL, 2 solutions:

1. 2.

Rigorous 2PL: Leave release of all locks until end of transaction. Strict 2PL: Holds only exclusive locks until the end of the transaction.

BOTH are still 2PL. So both still have growing and shrinking phases.

2PL still may cause deadlock.

46

Problems with 2PL

1.

Cascading Rollbacks:
Solved with strict or rigorous 2PL.

2.

Dead Locks:
Happen in regular 2PL, and also in strict and rigorous 2PL. Handled using deadlock detection and prevention techniques.

47

Deadlocks
Deadlock: An impasse that may result when two (or more) transactions are each waiting for locks held by the other to be released.

Once a deadlock happens, only one way to break deadlock: abort

one or more of the transactions.

Deadlock should be transparent to user, so DBMS should restart aborted transaction(s).

48

Example Deadlock
Time t1 T9 begin-transaction T10 begin-transaction write_lock(baly) read(baly) baly = baly + 100 write(baly) wait_lock(balx) WAIT WAIT WAIT

t2
t3 t4 t5

write_lock(balx)
read(balx) balx = balx - 10 write(balx)

t6
t7 t8 t9 t10 t11
49

write_lock(baly)
WAIT WAIT WAIT WAIT
:

Deadlock Handling

Two general techniques for handling deadlock:

Deadlock prevention: DBMS doesnt allow deadlock to happen.

Timeouts. Wait-Die. Wound-wait.

Deadlock detection and recovery: DBMS allows deadlocks to happens but detects and recovers from them.

Wait-for Graphs (WFG).

50

Timeouts

Transaction that requests lock will only wait for a system-

defined period of time.

If lock has not been granted within this period, lock request times out.

DBMS assumes transaction deadlocked, even though it may not be, and it aborts and automatically restarts the transaction.

51

Timestamps

Before we discuss Wait-die and Wound-wait techniques, introduce timestamps. A timestamp is a unique number given to each transaction. Traditionally, it is the time the transaction started.

The smaller the timestamp, the older the transaction.

52

Timestamps
Time T11 T12 read(balx) begin_transaction write(balx) commit write(balx) commit begin_transaction write(balx) T13

t1
t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t9

begin-transaction

t10

commit

TS(T11) = 1 TS(T12) = 3 TS(T13) = 8

53

Wait-Die Technique

Only an older transaction can wait for younger one, otherwise transaction is aborted (dies) and restarted with same timestamp. (Why the same?) If a transaction Ti requests a lock on an item held by Tj:

If Ti > Tj [TS(Ti) < TS(Tj)], Ti waits for Tj to release the lock. If Ti < Tj [TS(Ti) > TS(Tj)], Ti is aborted and restarted with the same TS.

54

Wound-Wait Technique

only a younger transaction can wait for an older one. If older transaction requests lock held by younger one, younger one is aborted (wounded) and restarted with same timestamp. (Why the same?) If a transaction Ti requests a lock on an item held by Tj:

If Ti > Tj [TS(Ti) < TS(Tj)], Tj is aborted and Ti gets the lock. If Ti < Tj [TS(Ti) > TS(Tj)], Ti waits for Tj to release the lock.

55

Deadlock Detection and Recovery

Usually handled by construction of wait-for graph (WFG)

showing transaction dependencies:

Create a node for each transaction. Create edge Ti Tj, if Ti waiting to lock item locked by Tj.

Deadlock exists if and only if WFG contains cycle.

56

Example Schedule with WFG

Time t1 t2 T9 begin-transaction write_lock(balx) begin-transaction write_lock(baly) read(baly) baly = baly + 100 write(baly) wait_lock(balx) T10

t3
t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t9 t10 t11
57

read(balx)
balx = balx - 10 write(balx) write_lock(baly) WAIT WAIT WAIT WAIT
:

T9

T10

WAIT
WAIT WAIT :

Deadlock Detection and Recovery

WFG is created at regular intervals. Several issues when recovering from a deadlock:

choice of deadlock victim; avoiding starvation.

Self-read: pages 596-597

58

Concurrency Control Techniques Overview

Locking

Timestamping

Optimistic

Basic Rules

2PL

Deadlock Prevention

Deadlock Detection

Basic Timestamp Ordering

Multi-version Time-stamp Ordering

Regular Strict 59

Rigorous

Time outs

WaitDie

Wound -Wait

Wait-for Graph

Thomass Write Rule

Timestamping

Main Idea: Transactions ordered globally so that older transactions (smaller timestamps) get priority in the event of conflict.

Conflict is resolved by rolling back (aborting) and restarting transaction.

No locks so no deadlock. Timestamp

A unique identifier created by DBMS that indicates relative starting time of

a transaction. Timestamping

A concurrency control protocol that orders transactions in such a way that

order transactions. Transactions with smaller timestamps, get priority in the event of conflict
60

Timestamping

2 Techniques:

1.

Basic Timestamp Ordering.

Thomass Write Rule.

2.

Multiversion Timestamp Ordering.

61

Basic Timestamp Ordering

Read/write proceeds only if last update on that data item was carried out by an older transaction.

Otherwise, transaction requesting read/write is restarted and given a new timestamp.

Main Goal: Ordering writes then reads/writes as they would have been ordered in a serial schedule.

Timestamps are also set for data items:

read-timestamp - timestamp of last transaction to read item;

write-timestamp - timestamp of last transaction to write item.

62

Basic Timestamping Read(x)

Consider a read(x) transaction T with timestamp TS(T):

TS(T) < write_timestamp(x)

x already updated by younger (later) transaction. Transaction T must be aborted and restarted with a new

timestamp.
TS(T) write_timestamp(x)

execute the read(x) operation of T

read_timestamp(x) = TS(T)

63

Basic Timestamping Write(x)

TS(T) < read_timestamp(x)

x already read by younger transaction.

Transaction T must be aborted and restarted with a new

timestamp.

TS(T) < write_timestamp(x)

x already written by younger transaction. Transaction T must be aborted and restarted with a new timestamp.

Otherwise, operation is accepted and executed. Write_timestamp(x) = TS(T)

64

Basic Timestamp Ordering

65

Thomass Write Rule

Provide greater concurrency by rejecting obsolete write operations. When a read(x) is encountered, behave just like in slide 62.

When a write(x) is encountered, perform the following check:

x already read by younger transaction. Transaction T must be aborted and restarted with a new timestamp.

TS(T) < read_timestamp(x)

TS(T) < write_timestamp(x)

x already written by younger transaction. Ignores the write operation (ignore obsolete write rule)

Otherwise, operation is accepted and executed. Write_timestamp(x) = TS(T)

66

Comparison of Methods
All Schedules
View Serializable Schedules

Conflict Serializable Schedules 2PL

TS

67

Multiversion Timestamp Ordering

Main Idea: Versioning of data can be used to increase concurrency so create multiple versions of each data item. Basic timestamp assumes only one version of data item exists, and so only one transaction can access data item at a time. Multiversion allows multiple transactions to read and write different versions of same data item. Multiversion ensures each transaction sees consistent set of versions for all data items it accesses. In multiversion: Each write operation creates new version of data item while retaining old version. When transaction attempts to read data item, system selects one version that ensures serializability NO ABORTS ON READs Each version has a read and a write timestamp. Versions can be deleted once they are no longer required.
68

Multiversion Timestamping Read(x)

When a transaction T wishes to read x, we find the correct version and let it read it. The correct version, xi, is the latest version written by an older transaction:

TS(T) write_timestamp(xi)

After xi is found and read by T, we need to record that xi was read by T:

read_timestamp(xi) = max(read_timestamp(xi), TS(T))

Absolutely no aborts on read.

69

Multiversion Timestamping Write(x)

When a transaction T wishes to write x, we need to perform a test first then write a new version. Test: we need make sure that there is no older version of x that has been read by a transaction younger than T The transaction that is younger than T should read Ts version, not this older version.

70

Multiversion Timestamping Write(x)

1.

Find the correct version, xi: is the latest version written by an older transaction:
TS(T) write_timestamp(xi)

2.

Test it: make sure that no younger transaction has already read xi: TS(T) < read_timestamp(xi)?

If yes: Abort T. If no: create a new version xj of x: read_timestamp(xj) = write_timestamp(xj) = TS(T)

71

Time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
72

T1

T2

T3 Begin Read(x) x=x+20 Write(x)

T4

T5 Begin

Begin Read(x) Begin Read(x)

Read(y)
Read(y) Begin Read(y) y=y/2 Write(y)

y=y+x-100 Write(y)
x=x+0.10x Write(x) Commit Commit

Commit
Commit Commit

Concurrency Control Techniques Overview

Locking

Timestamping

Optimistic

Basic Rules

2PL

Deadlock Prevention

Deadlock Detection

Basic Timestamp Ordering

Multi-version Time-stamp Ordering

Regular Strict 73

Rigorous

Time outs

WaitDie

Wound -Wait

Wait-for Graph

Thomass Write Rule

Optimistic Techniques

Main Idea: conflict is rare and it is more efficient to let transactions proceed without delays to ensure serializability.

At commit, check is made to determine whether conflict has occurred. If there is a conflict, transaction must be rolled back and restarted.

Potentially allows greater concurrency than traditional protocols. Three phases: Read. Validation. Write.
74

Optimistic Techniques Read Phase

Extends from start until immediately before commit.

Transaction reads values from database and stores them in local variables. Updates are applied to a local copy of the data.

DB is not changed during read phase.

75

Optimistic Techniques Validation Phase

Follows the read phase just before the transaction commits. For read-only transaction:

check that data read are still current values.

If no interference, transaction is committed.

Else, transaction is aborted and restarted.

For update transaction:

check transaction leaves database in a consistent state,

with serializability maintained.

76

Optimistic Techniques Write Phase

Follows successful validation phase for update transactions. Updates made to local copy are applied to the database.

77

Database Recovery

Process of restoring database to a correct state in the event of a failure. Transactions represent basic unit of recovery. Recovery manager responsible for atomicity and durability.

If failure occurs between commit and database buffers being flushed to secondary storage then, to ensure durability, recovery manager has to redo (rollforward) transactions updates. If transaction had not committed at failure time, recovery manager has to undo (rollback) any effects of that transaction for atomicity.

Partial undo - only one transaction has to be undone. Global undo - all transactions have to be undone.
78

Example
T1 T2

T3
T4 T5 T6 t0

tc

tf

DBMS starts at time t0, but fails at time tf. Assume data for transactions T2 and T3 have been written to secondary storage.

T1 and T6 have to be undone. In absence of any other information, recovery

manager has to redo T2, T3, T4, and T5.
79

Recovery Facilities

DBMS should provide following facilities to assist with recovery:

1.

Backup mechanism: which makes periodic backup copies of database.

Logging facilities: which keep track of current state of transactions and database changes. Checkpoint facility: which enables updates to database in progress to be made permanent. Recovery manager: which allows DBMS to restore database to consistent state following a failure.

2.

3.

4.

80

2. Logging Facilities: The Log File

Contains information about all updates to database:

Transaction records.

Checkpoint records.

Often used for other purposes (for example, auditing).

81

3. Checkpoint Facility
Checkpoint Point of synchronization between database and log file. All buffers are written to secondary storage.
1. 2. 3. 4.

A checkpoint consists of the following actions: Suspend execution of transactions temporarily. Write all updated buffers to disk. Write a checkpoint log record to disk. Resume executing transactions.

When failure occurs, the recovery manager performs the following:

Redo all transactions that committed since the checkpoint. Undo all transactions active at time of crash (if using immediate update).

82

Example
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 t0 tc tf

T1 and T6: undo.

T2 and T3: do nothing.

T4 and T5: redo.
83

Checkpoint in Log File

84

Main Recovery Techniques

Three main recovery techniques:

Deferred Update. Immediate Update.

Shadow Paging.

85

Deferred Update

Updates are not written to the database until after a transaction has reached its commit point. Start from the last checkpoint:

If a transaction has committed before checkpoint Do nothing. If a transaction has committed after checkpoint Redo it. If a transaction has not committed after checkpoint Do nothing.

86

Immediate Update

Updates are applied to database as they occur. Start from the last checkpoint:

If a transaction has committed before checkpoint Do nothing. If a transaction has committed after checkpoint Redo it. If a transaction has not committed after checkpoint Undo it.

Undo is done in reverse order: from bottom of log file to top. Redo is done in order: from top of log file to bottom.
87

Example

Using Deferred Update: Which transactions to undo? Redo?

Using Immediate Update: Which transactions to undo? Redo?

88

Shadow Paging

Maintain two page tables during life of a transaction:

Current page table. Shadow page table.

When transaction starts, two tables are the same. Shadow page table is never changed thereafter and is used to restore database in event of failure. During transaction, current page table records all updates to database. When transaction completes, current page table becomes shadow page table.
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