Fundamental Electrical Theory

Objectives
Basic electrical theory including ohm's law and its derivations Generator theory Generator construction and control mechanisms including prime movers and power ratings

Objectives
Fundamentals of electric motor theory including construction, power rating, usage, and control mechanisms. Compare the uses for AC and DC electric power and their transmission methods.

Definitions
Current (I): flow of electric charges per unit time or flow rate, measured in amperes or amps (A) Electromotive Force (emf) (E): a potential difference or electric pressure which drives the flow of charges, measured in volts (V) Resistance (R): an electrical circuits opposition to current flow, measured in ohms () Conductor: a material which offers little resistance to current flow, e.g. silver, copper, iron, etc Insulator: a material which offers high resistance to current flow, e.g. wood, paper, plastic, etc...

ELECTRICAL THEORY

Direct Current (DC)

Current flow is unidirectional and of constant magnitude (Batteries) Ohms Law: current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage and inversely proportional to the circuit resistance

E=IR P = I E = I2 R (W)

Basic Circuit Properties

Electrons flow (-) to (+) Kirchoffs Law of Voltages
Sum of all voltages in a complete ckt is zero Choose arbitrary current flow If current encounters (+) terminal 1st, then (+) voltage Voltage drops preceded by (-) sign if in the same direction as electron flow

Sum of current into and out of a node is always zero and constant

Basic Circuit Properties

Series
Current is constant (flow rate) Voltage drops across each resistor (pressure) R = R1 + R2 + R3 + etc

Parallel
Voltage drop constant Iin = I1 + I2 + I3 +etc 1/R = 1/ R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + etc

Example Problem #1
Determine V1, V2, V3, V4, and I.
10 10 5 20

V1

V2

V3

V4

90V +

Example Problem #2
Determine I1, I2, I3, I4 and total circuit resistance.
20

I4
30

I3
20

I2
75V +

I1

Generators
Generator- machine used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Generator is comprised of the essential elements of Faradays Law to produce electrical power

Induction of Voltage (Faraday)

Three things must be present in order to produce electrical current:
Magnetic field Conductor Relative motion

Conductor cuts lines of magnetic flux, a voltage is induced in the conductor Direction/Speed important

Electromagnetic induction requires a magnetic field, a conductor, and relative motion of the two. Note that when the conductor is moved through a magnetic field to cut the magnetic lines of flux, a voltage is also induced in the conductor. As before, if the conductor is connected to a voltmeter or galvanometer, the voltage is measured by a deflection on the meter. If the conductor is moved in the opposite direction through the field, the voltage will cause the needle to be deflected in the opposite direction because of the reversed direction of the induced current flow. Thus the same result occurs whether the conductor is held stationary and the magnetic field is moved relative to it, or vice versa.

Electromagnetic Induction
COIL (CONDUCTOR) INDUCED CURRENT

RELATIVE MOTION VOLTMETER MAGNET

INDUCED CURRENT

Generator Parts
Prime mover: mechanical work which turns the rotor, may be a steam turbine, gas turbine, diesel engine... Armature windings: the conductor in which the output voltage is induced Field windings: the conductors used to produce the electromagnetic field (needs a DC power supply), the magnet Stator: stationary housing of the generator, contains the magnet (field windings) Rotor: rotates inside the stator, moved by a prime mover (steam turbine, gas turbine, diesel), contains the conductor (armature windings) Poles: one set of armature windings is called a pole in the generator

DC Generator

Electro-Magnet

B (N x I)

DC Motors
Similar in construction to DC generators A DC generator may be made to act as a DC motor by applying a suitable voltage across its output terminals (a DC motor acts as a DC generator operating in reverse) Operates based on the principle that a current carrying conductor placed in, and at right angles to, a magnetic field tends to move in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force (righthand rule)

AC Power
Nickola Tesla and the Westinghouse Company felt that the nation should be electrified using AC because it could be transformed to high voltages for long distance transmission, and therefore did not require the construction of neighborhood power stations as DC would have. The Tesla argument gained the upper hand when he hit upon the idea of a brushless, polyphase induction motor. The advantages of a motor that needed no maintenance, in the form of replacing brushes and cleaning carbon dust out of the motor every several hundred hours, persuaded industry that polyphase AC, transformers, and the induction motor were the way to go. We will study more about the construction and operation of polyphase motors in a later lesson.

Alternating Current (AC) Theory

AC- The magnitude and direction of current flow in an AC circuit will change periodically (called a cycle). The frequency (Hz) of an AC circuit is the number of cycles per second.

 Resistors did not care about the time variance of voltage or current because Ohm's model, V I R = , does not contain any time varying quantities. However, when we introduce reactive devices, inductors and capacitors into the circuit, their characteristics depend on the history of the device as well as the present state. A-C sources are constantly changing their output voltage, which constantly keeps the reactive devices responding to the changes and in a constant state of transition. The mathematics necessary to account for the response of reactive devices is difficult and sheds very little light on the processes at work.

 - An A-C source, at least at frequencies that we will be dealing with, is simply a variable voltage D-C source. All the rules we learned about D-C circuits still apply; the sum of the voltages around any closed loop still has to add up to zero (KVL) and the sum of the current into and out of any node must be zero (KCL). - Left hand generator rule // Right hand motor rule

Alternating Current (AC)

Current is constantly changing in magnitude and direction at regular intervals Current is a function of time and usually varies as a sine function
I t

Two Types of AC Generators

Revolving armature
rotor is an armature (conductor) which is rotating inside a stationary electromagnetic field seldom used since output power must be transmitted through slip-rings and brushes

Revolving field
dc current is supplied to the rotor which makes a rotating electromagnetic field (revolving magnet) inside the stator, stator becomes the armature (conductor) onto which electrical current is induced. more practical since the current required to supply a field is much smaller & there is reduced sparking and arching across brush and commutator assembly

Revolving Armature
(Low Power/Voltage)

Revolving Field

Relationship Between Generator Speed and Frequency

Most electrical equipment in the United States operates on 60 Hz AC electrical power (many foreign countries use 60 Hz) How fast must a 2-pole generator be rotating to produce a 50 Hz output?

N x P = 120 x f
N - rpm P - poles f - frequency (Hz)

Classifying AC Generators
Number of phases: most shipboard electrical power is 3 phase, this is more reliable plus loss of one phase will not cause a loss of equipment operability Frequency: most shipboard electrical power is 60 Hz, some electronic equipment operate at 400 Hz or higher Voltage: usually 450 V, smaller appliances use 120 V Power rating: measured in kW, most shipboard generators are 2,000 - 3,000 kW

Three-Phase Electrical Power

Uses three sets of armature windings to produce three separate outputs Armature windings are physically separated 120o from each other, and therefore, each phase is 120o apart from another More power may be generated by a generator of a given size and weight Provides continuous power to electrical equipment even if one phase is damaged

3 Phase

Three Phase
1.5000 1.0000

0.5000

0.0000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Sine Sine + 120 Sine + 240

-0.5000

-1.0000

-1.5000

AC Motors

Induction Motor
Induction motor - simple, reliable and cheap Difference - the construction of the rotor Rotating field generated on stator No slip-rings or external source of power to the rotor Ideal for constant speed, varying torque applications

 The synchronous motor is not a practical motor for shipboard use due to its lack of self-starting and complexity. The induction motor on the other hand is a marvel of simplicity and reliability. Every motor we encounter aboard a ship can reasonably be assumed to be an induction motor. From now on, the term motor means induction motor. The induction motor has exactly the same field windings on the stator and the same constant intensity rotating magnetic field as the synchronous motor. The difference between an induction motor and a synchronous motor lies in the construction of the rotor.

The synchronous motor had a magnetic field on the rotor powered by direct current supplied through slip-rings from an external source. The induction motor has no slip-rings or external source of power to the rotor. The rotor is simply a cage of copper or aluminum bars shorted together at the ends by a copper or aluminum rings.

 As the magnetic field sweeps past our conductors, there is a voltage induced into the conductor due to the relative motion of a conductor and a magnetic field. As the field sweeps up on the left side, the electrons on the conductor think the wire is moving down. Applying the left-hand rule to the relative motion and the direction of the magnetic field gives us a Lorentz force pushing the electrons into the plane of the drawing on the left and out of the plane of the drawing on the right. Since the two conductors are shorted together at the ends by the shorting rings, very large amounts of current will flow in the single loop shown.

Induction Motor

Other Electrical Devices

Batteries
Dry-cell batteries: cylindrical zinc container, carbon electrode, and ammonium chloride/water electrolyte Wet-cell batteries: lead-acid battery is the most common, can be charged by forcibly changing the direction of electrical current

Lead-acid Battery
+
PbO2 Load

Pb

H2SO4

Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4

2PbSO4 + 2H20

Transformers
A device that transfers energy by electromagnetic induction Primary windings (receive energy from AC source) and secondary windings (delivers energy to the load) (insulated from each other electrically) are mounted on opposite sides of a ferromagnetic core Used to raise voltage (step-up transformer) or lower voltage (step-down transformer) Voltage is raised when the primary winding has fewer turns than the secondary winding, and voltage is lowered when the primary winding has more turns than the secondary winding

A Simple Transformer

PRIMARY WINDING CORE

SECONDARY WINDING

Rectifiers
Uses diodes to convert alternating current into direct current Diodes have a small resistance to current flow in one direction and a very large resistance to current flow in the opposite direction (act as a conductor for half of the cycle and as an insulator for the other half)

Rectifying Device Output

I t I t

INPUT
DIODE

OUTPUT

Voltage Kills
It is the volume of the current that flows that kills. 0.001 amps = 1 milliamp Tingles 0.01 amps = 10 milliamps Severe shock, uncontrolled muscle spasms 0.1 amps = 100 milliamps DEATH! If the current passes through vital organs such as the heart.

AC vs DC
AC power is easier to generate and requires less complex equipment (smaller machines) AC energy can be used in transformers to step up or step down voltages where DC energy cannot DC can be stored for reserve use, i.e. the ships battery!!!

THANKS