Advanced PFC

11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power
Factor Correction
1
Advanced Techniques in Power Factor
Correction (PFC)

Prof. Dr. Javier Sebastin

Grupo de Electrnica Industrial
Universidad de Oviedo (Spain)
Factor Correction
2
Outline
Introduction
Using a simple resistor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A
Using an inductor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A and in
Class D
Exploring the use of isolated Resistor Emulators as the only
conversion stage for medium-speed response applications
High-efficiency post regulators used to improve the transient
response of Resistors Emulators
Very simple single-stage PFCs
Very simple current shaping techniques for very low-cost applications
Factor Correction
3
Outline
Introduction
Class D
Factor Correction
4
Cheap & reliable
Input current with a
strong harmonic content
Current
Focusing the problem
Introduction (I)
Electronic
circuitry
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Line
Electronic load
Factor Correction
5
Load
Electronic
load
Line impedance
Line
Load
Load
Introduction (II)
Current
Input
voltage
Distorted
Factor Correction
6
Power Factor (PF)
PF=
Input power
Input voltage, rms X Input current, rms
THD=
(Input current, rms)
2
- (Its 1
ST
harmonic, rms)
2

Its 1
ST
harmonic, rms
Introduction (III)
Quantifying the problem
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
Each individual harmonic
European
regulations
Word used to describe
the problem
Factor Correction
7
Introduction (IV)
Power Companies will:
High PF
No harmonics
Electronic equipment
manufacturers will:
Low cost
Reliability
Conflict of interest
Regulations about
harmonics in the line
Factor Correction
8
Electronic
load
Line impedance
Line
Electronic
load
Electronic
load
Active
Filter
Introduction (V)
Starting solving the problem (I)
Using active filters
Factor Correction
9
Introduction (VI)
Starting solving the problem (II)
Modifying the electronic load Power Factor Correctors
Input
current
Either
or
Electronic
circuitry
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Electronic load
New
devices
Line
Power Factor Corrector
Factor Correction
10
Introduction (VII)
However: the value of the Power Factor is not
important.
According to the European Regulations, only the value
of each individual harmonic is important.
We should use words such as Low-Frequency
Harmonic Reduction and Low-Frequency
Harmonic Reducer instead of Power Factor
Correction and Power Factor Corrector.
Factor Correction
11
Focusing the course
Introduction (VIII)

Line
Single-Phase
Three-Phase

Conversion
AC/DC
AC/AC

Power
High power
Low-medium power
(230V, <16A)
Reactive
energy
Recovery to line
No recovery

Connection
External connection
Modifying AC/DC topology
Factor Correction
12
What is the right choice in PFC?
It strongly depends on the application. There is not
magic solutions.
It depends on:
The regulations that must be applied
The type of equipment
The output power
The input voltage range
The output voltage
The dynamic response needed
The main objective in the design
Introduction (IX)
Factor Correction
13
Class
A
Yes Balanced
3u equipment?
Portable
tool?
No
Lighting
equipment?
No
PC or TV &
P<600 W?
No
No
Class
B
Yes
Class
C
Yes
Class
D
Yes
Introduction (X)
The European Regulation
IEC 61000-3-2
Power supplies are either
Class A or Class D
Factor Correction
14
Harmonic Class A [A] Class D [mA/W]
3 2.3 3.4
5 1.14 1.9
7 0.77 1.0
9 0.40 0.5
11 0.33 0.35
13 0.21 0.296
15 s n s 39 2.25/n 3.85/n
Introduction (XI)
Harmonic limits for Class A and Class D
Very Important!!
Limits in Class A are absolute values [A]
Limits in Class D are relative values [mA/W]
Factor Correction
15
Harmonic Limits in
Class A [mA]
Limits in
Class D [mA]
3 2300 340
5 1140 190
7 770 100
9 400 50
11 330 35
13 210 29.6
15 s n s 39 2250/n 385/n
Introduction (XII)
Example #1: a 100 W (low-power) converter
Limits in Class A are less strict for low-power applications
Factor Correction
16
Harmonic Limits in
Class A [mA]
Limits in
Class D [mA]
3 2300 1700
5 1140 950
7 770 500
9 400 250
11 330 175
13 210 148
15 s n s 39 2250/n 1925/n
Introduction (XIII)
Example #2: a 500 W (medium-power) converter
Limits in Class A and in Class D become more
similar for medium-power applications
Factor Correction
17
Introduction (XIV)
Battery
Example #1: a 100 W (low-power) battery
charger (Class A)
Line
current
Line
voltage
This waveform complies
with the regulations!!!
PF = 0.46 and
THD = 193.1%
Very cheap systems for low-frequency harmonic attenuation
can be used to obtain this type of waveform
Factor Correction
18
Introduction (XV)
Example #1: a 100 W (low-power) TV set (Class D)
Line
current
Line
voltage
A slightly more complex system
must be used (it is still very simple)
Line
voltage
Line
current
PF = 0.748 and
THD = 88.8%
It does not comply with
the regulations
Factor Correction
19
Introduction (XVI)
Example #2: two 500 W (low-power) pieces of
equipment
The advantages of being Class A vanish at 500 W
Line
voltage
Line
current
PF = 0.748 and
THD = 88.8%
Line
voltage
Line
current
PF = 0.705 and
THD = 100.5%
Class A
Class D
Factor Correction
20
Introduction (XVII)
The complexity of the systems for low-frequency
harmonic attenuation increases with the power
Line
voltage
Line
current
PF = 0.705 and
THD = 100.5%
PF = 0.963 and
THD = 28.1%
Line
current
Line
voltage
Example #3: same Class, different power
Factor Correction
21
Introduction (XVIII)
Influence of the input voltage range (I)
European range: 190 Vac 265 Vac
American range: 85 Vac 130 Vac
Universal range: 85 Vac 265 Vac
Two ranges (American and European), but a
mechanical switch permitted for changing the
range
Factor Correction
22
Introduction (XIX)
Influence of the input voltage range (II)
Electronic
circuitry
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Electronic load
PFC
Single range (either European or American) and simple system for
low-frequency harmonic attenuation (PFC)
Moderate change in the input voltage of the DC/DC converter
Slight penalty in efficiency
Simple PFC with
single range
Factor Correction
23
Introduction (XX)
Electronic
circuitry
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Electronic load
PFC
Universal range and simple PFC
Large change in the input voltage of the DC/DC converter
Significant penalty in efficiency
Complex PFCs which guaranty constant input voltage are interesting
Complex PFC with
universal range
Influence of the input voltage range (III)
Factor Correction
24
Introduction (XXI)
Is it compatible with the
use of simple PFC?
Electronic
circuitry
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Electronic load
Electronic
circuitry
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Electronic load
230V
110V
Power supply for single
range without PFC
Power supply for double
range without PFC
Two ranges selected by a switch
Influence of the input voltage range (IV)
Factor Correction
25
Introduction (XXII)
Simple PFC placed
on the DC side
110V
230V
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Simple
PFC
Simple
PFC
110V
230V
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Simple
PFC Simple PFC placed
on the AC side
Influence of the input voltage range (V)
Two ranges selected by a switch and PFC
Factor Correction
26
Current
Introduction (XXIII)
Electronic
circuitry
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
Electronic load
Electronic
circuitry
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
as
Electronic load
Resistor
Emulator
Current
Changing the place of the DC/DC
converter Resistor Emulator concept
Factor Correction
27
Introduction (XXIV)
Using only a Resistor Emulator (I)
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
as
Resistor
Emulator
O
u
t
p
u
t

Current
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
O
u
t
p
u
t

Current
Energy stored at high voltage
(325 V DC) small size
Energy stored at the output
voltage the size depends on
the voltage
It is not a good solution for low-voltage
(<12 V DC) applications
Factor Correction
28
Introduction (XXV)
Using only a Resistor Emulator (II)
Power
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
O
u
t
p
u
t

Current
Voltage
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
as
Resistor
Emulator
O
u
t
p
u
t

Current
Voltage
Power
No devices to store
energy at 100 Hz
Energy stored here
The converter is in charge of
cancelling the output ripple
Little (or no) power processed at
specific moments the output
ripple depends on the capacitor
It is not a good solution when
low output-ripple is needed
Factor Correction
29
Introduction (XXVI)
Using only a Resistor Emulator (III)
Power
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
as
Resistor
Emulator
O
u
t
p
u
t

Current
Voltage
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
O
u
t
p
u
t

Current
Voltage
Power
No devices to store energy at 100 Hz
Energy stored here
The converter can get energy from the
capacitor to maintain the output voltage
when the output current changes
specific moments no energy
available to maintain the output
voltage when the output current
changes
It is not a good solution when fast
transient response is needed
Factor Correction
30
Introduction (XXVII)
In the case of fast transient response
needed:
Power supply
Electronic
circuitry
Line
Simple or
complex
PFC
DC/DC
converter
Two separate
stages
Electronic
circuitry
Line
Power supply
Simple
PFC
section
DC/DC
converter
section
One integrated
stage
A DC/DC converter
(or section) is needed
DC/DC
converter
DC/DC
converter
Factor Correction
31
Cost
Size
Weight
Efficiency
Only comply with the regulations
High Power Factor and low Total Harmonic
Distortion (for marketing reasons)
Introduction (XXVIII)
What are the design priorities?
They also determine the right choice
Factor Correction
32
Outline
Introduction
Using a simple resistor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in
Class A
Class D
Factor Correction
33
Using a resistor (I)
Looking for the simplest solution (I)
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
(120 W)
200 F
4 X 1N4007
Capacitor voltage
Input current
Class D
Factor Correction
34
Using a resistor (II)
Looking for the simplest solution (II)
Input current
Order Measured [A] Limits Class D [A]
1 0.542 -
3 0.527 0.408
5 0.498 0.228
7 0.457 0.12
9 0.407 0.06
11 0.351 0.042
13 0.294 0.036
15 0.239 0.031
17 0.192 0.027
19 0.155 0.024
21 0.132 0.022
23 0.121 0.02
25 0.117 0.018
27 0.115 0.017
29 0.112 0.016
31 0.105 0.015
33 0.097 0.014
35 0.087 0.013
37 0.079 0.012
39 0.073 0.012
The compliance is very far
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Harmonic order
Input current [A]
Limits in Class D
Simulated
Factor Correction
35
Using a resistor (III)
Looking for the simplest solution (III)
What about a Class A piece of equipment?
Line
Battery Charger
DC/DC
converter
(120 W) 200 F
4 X 1N4007
Battery
Capacitor voltage
Input current
Class A
Factor Correction
36
Using a resistor (IV)
Looking for the simplest solution (IV)
Input current
It does not comply, but it
is very near to comply
Order Measured [A] Limits Class A [A]
1 0.542 -
3 0.527 2.3
5 0.498 1.14
7 0.457 0.77
9 0.407 0.4
11 0.351 0.33
13 0.294 0.21
15 0.239 0.15
17 0.192 0.132
19 0.155 0.118
21 0.132 0.107
23 0.121 0.098
25 0.117 0.09
27 0.115 0.083
29 0.112 0.078
31 0.105 0.073
33 0.097 0.068
35 0.087 0.064
37 0.079 0.061
39 0.073 0.058
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Harmonic order
Input current [A]
Limits in Class A
Simulated
Factor Correction
37
Using a resistor (V)
Looking for the simplest solution (V)
Order Measured [A] Limits Class A [A]
1 0.528 -
3 0.5 2.3
5 0.448 1.14
7 0.378 0.77
9 0.3 0.4
11 0.225 0.33
13 0.164 0.21
15 0.128 0.15
17 0.115 0.132
19 0.113 0.118
21 0.109 0.107
23 0.1 0.098
25 0.087 0.09
27 0.076 0.083
29 0.07 0.078
31 0.067 0.073
33 0.066 0.068
35 0.063 0.064
37 0.058 0.061
39 0.053 0.058
Line
Battery Charger
DC/DC
converter
(120 W) 100 F
4 X 1N4007
Let us change the value of the bulk capacitor
Capacitor voltage
Input current
Almost compliance
with 100 F
Factor Correction
38
Using a resistor (VI)
Looking for the simplest solution (VI)
However, the value of the bulk capacitor cannot be
freely chosen because:
Hold-up time requirements
Input voltage range of the DC/DC converter
Another solution must be found
Factor Correction
39
Using a resistor (VII)
The simplest solution: to add a resistor
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
DC side
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
AC side
R
R
Factor Correction
40
@ 230V ac, R =1.5 O
i
input peak
= 4.12 A
P
resistor
= 1.85 W
Using a resistor (VIII)
Order Measured [A]
with R=0 O
Measured [A]
with R=1 O

Measured [A]
with R=1.5 O
Limits
Class A [A]
1 0.542 0.539 0.538 -
3 0.527 0.52 0.516 2.3
5 0.498 0.484 0.474 1.14
7 0.457 0.433 0.416 0.77
9 0.407 0.372 0.347 0.4
11 0.351 0.304 0.273 0.33
13 0.294 0.237 0.2 0.21
15 0.239 0.173 0.135 0.15
17 0.192 0.12 0.084 0.132
19 0.155 0.084 0.056 0.118
21 0.132 0.067 0.053 0.107
23 0.121 0.066 0.057 0.098
25 0.117 0.067 0.058 0.09
27 0.115 0.065 0.052 0.083
29 0.112 0.058 0.041 0.078
31 0.105 0.047 0.029 0.073
33 0.097 0.036 0.021 0.068
35 0.087 0.028 0.02 0.064
37 0.079 0.025 0.022 0.061
39 0.073 0.026 0.024 0.058
C
bulk
= 200 F
P
converter
= 120 W
Factor Correction
41
@ 230V ac, R =1.5 O
i
input peak
= 4.12 A
P
resistor
= 1.85 W
Using a resistor (IX)
C
bulk
= 200 F
P
converter
= 120 W
Input-current waveform with a resistor
Capacitor voltage
Input current
Capacitor voltage
Input current
@ 230V ac, R =0 O
i
input peak
= 6.37 A
Factor Correction
42
Using a resistor (X)
Design procedure
Obtain the resistor
(from graphs)
Use the simplest
method
Other
method must
be used
Choose bulk
capacitor
Input power
Calculate losses @ full
power, 190 Vac
Acceptable
losses?
NO
YES
Factor Correction
43
50 100 150 200 250 300
1
2
3
4
R [O]
Output power [W]
Using a resistor (XI)
Value of the resistor needed to comply
with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A as a
function of the input power (bulk capacitor
in F per watt as parameter)
0.5 F/W 1 F/W
2 F/W
Factor Correction
44
Using a resistor (XII)
Absolute power losses at full
load and minimum line voltage
(maximum line current)
Output power [W]
Power losses [W]
50 100 150 200 250 300
5
10
15
20
25
1 F/W
2 F/W
0.5 F/W
Factor Correction
45
Using a resistor (XIII)
Relative power losses (P
R
/P
output)
at
full load and minimum line voltage
(maximum line current)
Output Power [W]
Relative losses [%]
50 100 150 200 250 300
2
4
6
8
10
0.5 F/W
1 F/W
2 F/W
Factor Correction
46
Using a resistor (XIV)
Design example:
P
output
=150W, C=150F (1F/W)
50 100 150 200 250 300
1
2
3
4
R [O]
Output power [W]
1 F/W
2.5 O
Factor Correction
47
Using a resistor (XV)
Output power [W]
Power losses [W]
50 100 150 200 250 300
5
10
15
20
25
1 F/W
5 W
Power losses in the resistor at
P
output
=150W and V
line
=190V
Factor Correction
48
Using a resistor (XVI)
Power limits for this solution
Output Power [W]
Relative losses [%]
50 100 150 200 250 300
2
4
6
8
10
1 F/W
Very
interesting
Not so
interesting
Factor Correction
49
Power losses
strongly increase at
low line voltage
Using a resistor (XVII)
P
converter
= 120 W
C
bulk
= 200 F
R=1.5 O
Using this solution for Universal line
voltage range
Line
Quantity
@ 230V @ 110V
i
input peak
4.12 A 5.09A
i
input RMS
1.11 A 1.853 A
P
losses resistor
1.85 W 5.15 W
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
P
converter

C
bulk

4 X 1N4007
R
Factor Correction
50
Using a resistor (XVIII)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (I)
DC/DC
converter
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
R/2
R/2
DC side
230V
110V
AC side
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
DC/DC
converter
Power supply
Line
R
230V
110V
Different operation (AC side & DC side)
Factor Correction
51
Using a resistor (XIX)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (II)
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
DC/DC
converter
Power supply
Line
R
230V
110V
i
input 230V

AC side
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
DC/DC
converter
Power supply
Line
R
230V
110V
i
input 110V

Both i
input 110V
and i
input 230V
passing through R

Factor Correction
52
Using a resistor (XX)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (III)
DC side
DC/DC
converter
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
R/2
R/2
230V
110V
i
input 110V
DC/DC
converter
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
R/2
R/2
230V
110V
i
input 230V
i
input 110V
passing through R/2

and i
input 230V
passing through R (better)
Factor Correction
53
Using a resistor (XXI)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (IV)
DC/DC
converter
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
R/2
R/2
230V
110V
110V
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
DC/DC
converter
Power supply
Line
R
230V
110V
110V
Example:
P
converter
= 120 W
C
bulk
= 2 X 400 F (series)
R=1.5 O
P
losses resistors
= 3.15 W
(total)
P
losses resistor
= 5.27 W
Factor Correction
54
Impractical due to the fact that the power losses strongly
increase at low line voltage
Using a resistor (XXII)
Power R C losses
@ 230V
losses
@ 190V
losses
@ 110V
losses
@ 85V
100 W 1.6 O 2x220 F 1.3 W 1.6 W 3.8 W 5 W
200 W 3.6 O 2x440 F 8.5 W 11.5 W 29 W 50 W
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (V)
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
DC/DC
converter
Power supply
Line
R
230V
110V
C
C
Factor Correction
55
Better results with the resistor split into two resistors
Using a resistor (XXIII)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (VI)
DC/DC
converter
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
R/2
R/2
230V
110V
C
C
Power R C losses
@ 230V
losses
@ 190V
losses
@ 110V
losses
@ 85V
100 W 1.6 O 2x220 F 1.3 W 1.6 W 2.1 W 3.1 W
200 W 3.6 O 2x440 F 8.5 W 11.5 W 16 W 25 W
Factor Correction
56
Line
R/2
R/2
230V
110V
C
C
1 A/div
@ 230V, 100W
2 A/div
@ 110V, 100W
@ 230V, 100W,
2x0.82O, 2W
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
11 19 31 7 15 23 35 27 3
Harmonic Order
Input current [A]
Limits in Class A
Measured
Using a resistor (XXIV)
Experimental results (I)
P
converter
= 100 W
C = 2 X 100 F (series)
R = 2x0.82 O
Factor Correction
57
Line
R/2
R/2
230V
110V
C
C
2 A/div
@ 230V, 200W
2 A/div
@ 110V, 200W
Using a resistor (XXV)
Experimental results (II)
P
converter
= 200 W
C = 2 X 200 F (series)
R= 2x1.8 O
@ 230V, 200W,
2x1.8O, 10W
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
11 19 31 7 15 23 35 27 3
Harmonic Order
Input current [A]
Limits in Class A
Measured
Factor Correction
58
Using a resistor (XXVI)
Conclusions of the use of a resistor to
comply with the IEC 61000-3-2
regulations in Class A
This is the simplest possible solution
Low-cost and low-size solution
Very interesting for low-power (P<200-300W) applications
High losses with universal line voltage range (only valid
for P<150W)
The DC bus is not regulated
For the universal line voltage and with a voltage-doubler
with a mechanical switch, it can be used up to 200W
No perfect sinusoidal, but compliance with IEC 61000-3-2
is achieved
Factor Correction
59
Outline
Introduction
Using an inductor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A
and in Class D
Factor Correction
60
Using an inductor (I)
Another very simple solution: to add an inductor
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
DC side
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
AC side
L
L
Factor Correction
61
@ 230V ac, L = 2 mH
i
input peak
= 3.84 A
Order Measured [A]
with L=0 mH
Measured [A]
with L=1 mH

Measured [A]
with L=2 mH
Limits
Class A [A]
1 0.542 0.552 0.545 -
3 0.527 0.531 0.515 2.3
5 0.498 0.493 0.459 1.14
7 0.457 0.438 0.384 0.77
9 0.407 0.374 0.299 0.4
11 0.351 0.303 0.214 0.33
13 0.294 0.232 0.138 0.21
15 0.239 0.167 0.079 0.15
17 0.192 0.11 0.046 0.132
19 0.155 0.067 0.039 0.118
21 0.132 0.042 0.04 0.107
23 0.121 0.036 0.036 0.098
25 0.117 0.037 0.028 0.09
27 0.115 0.037 0.02 0.083
29 0.112 0.032 0.017 0.078
31 0.105 0.025 0.016 0.073
33 0.097 0.019 0.016 0.068
35 0.087 0.016 0.014 0.064
37 0.079 0.015 0.011 0.061
39 0.073 0.015 0.009 0.058
C
bulk
= 200 F
P
converter
= 120 W
Using an inductor (II)
Factor Correction
62
Using an inductor (III)
Input-current waveform and harmonic
content with an inductor
Capacitor voltage
Input current
Example:
C
bulk
= 200 F
P
converter
= 120 W
L = 2 mH
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Input current [A]
Limits in Class D
Simulated
Harmonic order
@ 230V, 120 W
@ 230V, 120 W
Harmonic order
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Input current [A]
Limits in Class A
Simulated
It complies
It does not
comply
Factor Correction
63
C
bulk
= 200 F
P
converter
= 120 W
Comparing input-current waveform with
an inductor and a resistor for Class A
equipment
@ 230V ac, R =1.5 O
i
input peak
= 4.12 A
P
resistor
= 1.85 W
Capacitor voltage
Input current
Using an inductor (IV)
@ 230V ac, L = 2 mH
i
input peak
= 3.84 A
Capacitor voltage
Input current
Factor Correction
64
0
5
10
10 ms
0
C = 200 F
C = 800 F
Comparing input-current waveforms with
different bulk capacitor values
Using an inductor (V)
Slightly influence of
the capacitor value
340 V
288 V
8.38 A
C = 200 F
10 ms 20 ms
0
Capacitor
voltage
Input current
0
312 V
300 V
7.55 A
C = 800 F
10 ms 20 ms 0
Capacitor
voltage
Input current
L = 3.3 mH
P
converter
= 400 W
Factor Correction
65
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
Harmonic Order
@ 230V, 100 W,
1.7 mH & 47 F
Input current [A]
Limits in Class A
Simulated
20 ms
-5
0
5
3.85 A
10 ms
0
Input current [A]
Time
Using an inductor (VI)
Looking for the most restrictive harmonics (I)
Example: 100 W,
1.7 mH & 47 F
Harmonics 13
th
-17
th

are the most restrictive
at low power
Factor Correction
66
Using an inductor (VII)
Example: 600 W,
7.8 mH & 330 F
Harmonics 3
rd
-5
th
are
the most restrictive at
high power
Looking for the most restrictive harmonics (II)
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Harmonic Order
@ 230V, 600 W,
7.8 mH & 330 F
Input current [A]
Limits in Class A
Simulated
-10
0
10
8.68 A
10 ms
20 ms
0
Input current [A]
Time
Factor Correction
67
100 200 300 400 500 600
2
4
6
8
L [mH]
Output power [W]
0.5 F/W
2 F/W
Using an inductor (VIII)
Value of the minimum inductor needed to comply
with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A as a function
of the input power (bulk capacitor in F per watt
as parameter)
Factor Correction
68
Using an inductor (IX)
Comparing the influence of the bulk capacitor for
the case of the inductor and the resistor
0.5 F/W
2 F/W
100 200 300 400 500 600
2
4
6
8
L [mH]
Output power [W]
50 100 150 200 250 300
1
2
3
4
R [O]
Output power [W]
0.5 F/W
1 F/W
2 F/W
Lower inductor values with
high bulk capacitor values
Erratic influence of the
value of the bulk capacitor
Factor Correction
69
Design procedure
for Class A
Obtain the inductor
(from graphs)
Use this method
Other
method must
be used
Choose bulk
capacitor
Input power
Calculate the inductor
size
Acceptable
size?
NO
YES
Using an inductor (X)
Factor Correction
70
100 200 300 400 500 600
2
4
6
8
L [mH]
Output power [W]
0.5 F/W
2 F/W
Using an inductor (XI)
2.7 mH
Design example:
P
output
=200 W, C=100 F (0.5 F/W)
Factor Correction
71
Using an inductor (XII)
What about the inductor size?
We must know the maximum peak value of the input current (at full
load and minimum line voltage) determine the gap and number of
turns
We must know the maximum RMS value of the input current (at full
load and minimum line voltage) determine the wire size (diameter)
and losses
Input power
[W]
L [mH] I
peak
[A] I
RMS
[A]
Equivalent
ferrite
core size
Power losses
(%)
200 2.7
5.33 @ 230V
6.07 @ 190V
1.6 @ 230V
1.88 @ 190V
E30/15/7 0.8
Factor Correction
72
Using an inductor (XIII)
Inductor size and losses for different
power levels
Input power
[W]
L [mH]
Equivalent
ferrite
core size
Power losses
(%)
100 2 E20/10/5 0.53
200 2.7 E30/15/7 0.8
300 3.4 E42/21/15 0.3
400 4.4 E42/21/15 0.66
500 6.8 E42/21/20 0.57
600 7.8 E42/21/20 1.66
Factor Correction
73
10 100 1000 10000 100000
0.5
1
1.5
2
B [T]
H [A/m]
B [mT]
10 100 1000 10000
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
P
losses
[kw/m
3
]
Using an inductor (XIV)
Magnetic materials for the inductor (I)
Silicon steel lamination
core (instead of ferrite)
Example: RG11
High induction levels
(1.4 T) are possible
Factor Correction
74
Magnetic materials for the inductor (II)
Using an inductor (XV)
Factor Correction
75
Line current
with DC-side
inductor
Capacitor voltage
with DC-side inductor
Time
with AC-side
inductor
with AC-side
inductor
DC-side or AC-side inductor?
Using an inductor (XVI)
DC-side inductor
AC-side
inductor
Exactly the same result if the converter is
working in strong DCM
Example: C
bulk
= 200 F, L = 2 mH, P
converter
= 120 W
Factor Correction
76
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Input current [A]
Limits in Class D
Simulated
Harmonic order
@ 230V, 120 W
Using an inductor (XVII)
Example: C
bulk
= 200 F, L = 2 mH, P
converter
= 120 W
Low-frequency harmonics are the most significant ones
A considerable increase in the inductance value is needed
What about complying with the IEC
61000-3-2 regulations in Class D?
Factor Correction
77
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Harmonic Order
@ 230V, 100W, 41mH & 200F
Input current [A]
Limits in Class D
@ 100W
Simulated
-2
-1
0
1
2
1.42 A
0
10 ms 20 ms
Input current [A]
Time
Looking for the minimum value of L to
comply with the regulations in Class D (I)
Using an inductor (XVIII)
Example: C
bulk
= 200 F, L = 41 mH, P
converter
= 100 W
An inductor of 41 mH is needed for 100 W
Factor Correction
78
Looking for the minimum value of L to
comply with the regulations in Class D (II)
Using an inductor (XIX)
Example: C
bulk
= 1200 F, L = 7 mH, P
converter
= 600 W
An inductor of 7 mH is needed for 600 W
If we increase the power, the limits will also increase a similar
input-current waveform is enough to comply with the regulations
-10
0
10
8.12 A
0
10 ms 20 ms
Input current [A]
Time
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Harmonic Order
0.5
@ 230V, 600W, 7mH & 1200F
Input current [A]
Limits in Class D
@ 600W
Simulated
0
Factor Correction
79
Using an inductor (XX)
Value of the minimum inductor needed to comply
with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class D as a function
of the input power (bulk capacitor in F per watt
as parameter)
0.5 F/W
2 F/W
L [mH]
Output power [W]
100 200 300 400 500 600
10
20
30
40
50
The value of the inductors
inductance decreases
when the power increases,
but the size increases
(because it depends on the
square value of the peak
current)
Factor Correction
80
Using an inductor (XXI)
Inductor size and losses for different
power levels
Input power
[W]
L [mH]
Equivalent
ferrite
core size
Power losses
(%)
100 41 E42/21/15 1
200 21 E42/21/15 2
300 14 E42/21/20 1.1
400 10 E42/21/20 1.25
500 8.7 E42/21/20 1.8
600 6.9 E42/21/20 2.18
Factor Correction
81
Using an inductor (XXII)
Comparing the value of the minimum inductor
needed to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in
Class A and in Class D
0.5 F/W
2 F/W
L [mH]
Output power [W]
100 200 300 400 500 600
10
20
30
40
50
Minimum inductor to
comply in Class D
100 200 300 400 500 600
2
4
6
8
L [mH]
Output power [W]
0.5 F/W
2 F/W
Minimum inductor to
comply in Class A
Lower L values at low power
Similar L values at high power
Factor Correction
82
Similar L sizes at high power
Lower L sizes at low
power in Class A
Using an inductor (XXIII)
Inductor size and losses for different power levels
Input power
[W]
L [mH] in
Class A
Equivalent
core size in
Class A
Power
losses in
Class A (%)
L [mH] in
Class D

Equivalent
core size in
Class D
Power
losses in
Class D (%)
100 2 E20/10/5 0.53 41 E42/21/15 1
200 2.7 E30/15/7 0.8 21 E42/21/15 2
300 3.4 E42/21/15 0.3 14 E42/21/20 1.1
400 4.4 E42/21/15 0.66 10 E42/21/20 1.25
500 6.8 E42/21/20 0.57 8.7 E42/21/20 1.8
600 7.8 E42/21/20 1.66 6.9 E42/21/20 2.18
Factor Correction
83
Using an inductor (XXIV)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (I)
Different operation (AC side & DC side)
AC side
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
DC/DC
converter
Power supply
Line
230V
110V
L
DC/DC
converter
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
L/2
L/2
DC side
230V
110V
Factor Correction
84
AC side
Both i
input 110V
and i
input 230V
passing through L

Electronic
circuitry
Class A
DC/DC
converter
Power supply
Line
230V
110V
L
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
DC/DC
converter
Power supply
Line
230V
110V
L
Using an inductor (XXV)
i
input 110V

i
input 230V

Factor Correction
85
DC side
L/2
L/2
DC/DC
converter
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
230V
110V
i
input 110V
passing through L/2

and i
input 230V
passing through L
Using an inductor (XXVI)
DC/DC
converter
Electronic
circuitry
Class A
Line
Power supply
L/2
230V
110V
L/2
i
input 110V
i
input 230V
Factor Correction
86
Line
L
C
0.5 A/div
@ 230V, 100W
Class D
P
converter
= 100 W
C = 47 F
L = 41 mH
Using an inductor (XXVII)
5 9 13 21 25 29 33
0.1
0.2
0.3
37 17
@ 230V, 100W,
41 mH
Harmonic order
Input current [A]
Limits in Class D
Measured
Factor Correction
87
Line
L
C
1 A/div
@ 230V, 100W
Class A
P
converter
= 100 W
C = 47 F
L = 1.7 mH
Using an inductor (XXVIII)
@ 230V, 100W,
1.7 mH
Harmonic order
Input current [A]
Limits in Class A
Measured
3 15 19 23 27 31 35
1
2
11 9
Factor Correction
88
Conclusions of the use of an inductor
to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2
regulations in Class A and Class D
This is a very simple solution
Low-cost and high-efficiency (low-losses) solution
Very interesting for low-power (P<200-300W) applications
in Class A
Large inductor size for Class D and high-power Class A
The DC bus is not regulated
For the universal line voltage range, a voltage doubler
with a mechanical switch can be implemented to improve
the circuit operation
No perfect sinusoidal waveform, but compliance with the
IEC 61000-3-2 regulations
Using an inductor (XXVIII)
Factor Correction
89
Outline
Introduction
Class D
Factor Correction
90
Using only a RE (I)
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
O
u
t
p
u
t

R or L
Current
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
as
Resistor
Emulator
O
u
t
p
u
t

Current
Passive (L or R) versus active systems to
reduce the harmonic content
Low-cost
Either low-losses or low-size
Non-sinusoidal waveform
solutions for low power
Unregulated voltage across the
capacitor solutions for limited line
voltage range (many times, voltage
doubler needed)
Sinusoidal waveform solutions for any
power
Regulated voltage across the capacitor
solutions for universal line voltage range
A good solution if only the
Resistor Emulator were enough
Factor Correction
91
Using only a RE (II)
Is only a Resistor Emulator enough to
implement the overall power supply?
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
as
Resistor
Emulator
O
u
t
p
u
t

Energy stored at the output
voltage the size depends on
the voltage
From the point of view of the capacitor size, it is not a bad
solution for medium and high voltage applications (>12 V DC)
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
O
u
t
p
u
t

R or L
(325 V DC) small size
Factor Correction
92
Using only a RE (III)
And, what about the dynamics?
DC/DC
converter
Example of Resistor Emulator control:
control based on an analog multiplier
Lowpass
filter
Why a lowpass filter
here?
Factor Correction
93
Using only a RE (IV)
The lowpass filter influence (I)
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
V
ea
V
ea

Input voltage
Current Reference=
V
ea
Sinus
V
ea

Input voltage
Current Reference=
V
ea
Sinus
Filter with very-
low cut-off
frequency
Filter with
high cut-off
frequency
A filter with low cut-off frequency
is needed if a perfect sinusoidal
is required
Factor Correction
94
Using only a RE (V)
The lowpass filter influence (II)
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
V
ea
Filter with very low cut-off frequency:
Perfect sinusoidal line current
Very poor dynamic response
If yes, the use of only a Resistor
Emulator as overall power
supply becomes very attractive
And, what about the
dynamic response?
Filter with high cut-off frequency:
Non-perfect sinusoidal line current
But, can we achieve compliance with
the IEC 61000-3-2 and reasonable
dynamic response?
Factor Correction
95
Using only a RE (VI)
Line current waveform as a function of
the voltage regulator pole frequency f
p

f
p
: 10 Hz
f
p
: 100 Hz
f
p
: 1000 Hz
f
p
: 500 Hz
Voltage
regulator
f
p

time
f [Hz]
-135
-90
-45
0
45
1 10 100 1000 10000
A
R
[]
|A
R
| [dB]
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
f
p
f
p
f
p

f
p
= 1kHz is a practical limit (no
significant phase shift at 100Hz)
Factor Correction
96
Using only a RE (VII)
Line current waveform as a function of
the voltage regulator DC gain A
R

A
R
= 100
A
R
= 50
f
p
: 10 Hz
f
p
: 100 Hz
f
p
: 1000 Hz
f
p
: 500 Hz
A
R
= 100
is a practical limit
due to the voltage
levels in the
controller
Factor Correction
97
Using only a RE (VIII)
Looking for the worst case
A
R
~ 100
f
p
~1000 Hz
Line current
3
11 21 31
39
0
1
2
3
2.3 A
Harmonic Order
Input current [A]
Limits in Class D
@ 100W
Simulated
Theoretical harmonic content: Only
the third harmonic is present
Factor Correction
98
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
V
ea
V
iref
V
1
sinet
R
s
V
iref
= V
1
sinet (V
eao
+ V
ea
sin2et)
V
eao
+ V
ea
sin2et

Using only a RE (IX)
Why is the third harmonic the only one
present in the line current? (I)
V
1
sinet
V
iref
(et) = V
eao
V
1
sinet + 0.5V
1
V
ea
coset - 0.5V
1
V
ea
cos3et
For 0s etst:
i
line DC

i
line DC
(et) = (V
eao
V
1
sinet + 0.5V
1
V
ea
coset - 0.5V
1
V
ea
cos3et)/R
s

Therefore, for 0s etst:
i
line AC
(et) = i
line DC
(et) = (V
eao
V
1
sinet + 0.5V
1
V
ea
coset - 0.5V
1
V
ea
cos3et)/R
s
Factor Correction
99
Using only a RE (X)
Why is the third harmonic the only one
present in the line current? (II)
Due to the line rectifier:

i
line AC
(et) =
i
line DC
(et) if 0s etst and
-i
line DC
(et) if ts ets0
For t s et s 0:
i
line AC
(et) = -i
line DC
(et) = -i
line DC
(et-t) = -(V
eao
V
1
sin(et-t) + 0.5V
1
V
ea
cos(et-t) -
0.5V
1
V
ea
cos3(et-t))/R
s
= (V
eao
V
1
sinet + 0.5V
1
V
ea
coset - 0.5V
1
V
ea
cos3et)/R
s

i
line DC
(et)
et
et-t
i
line AC
(et)
Due to the fact that the frequency of i
line DC
is 2e:
i
line DC
(et) = i
line DC
(et-t)

Therefore, for -ts etst:
i
line AC
(et) = (V
eao
V
1
sinet + 0.5V
1
V
ea
coset - 0.5V
1
V
ea
cos3et)/R
s

There are only components of e and 3e

Factor Correction
100
Using only a RE (XI)
IEC 61000-3-2 regulations in Class A can be
complied up to very high power levels
Looking for the maximum power compatible
with complying with the IEC 61000-3-2
regulations in Class A (I)
A
R
~ 50-100
f
p
~1000 Hz
Line current
A
R
Output ripple=1 % Output ripple=2 %
50 3680 W 3400 W
100 3400 W 1700 W
Factor Correction
101
Using only a RE (XII)
Looking for the maximum power
compatible with complying with the IEC
61000-3-2 regulations in Class A (II)
Theoretical
Theoretical
Line current obtained
by simulation
A
R
= 100,
f
C
: 1 kHz
0
1
2
3
A
R
= 100,
f
C
: 500 Hz
0
1
2
3
Simulated
Simulated
The theoretical and the simulated
waveforms are slightly different
The cause is the output voltage
ripple.
Due to this, the actual ripple is
not exactly sinusoidal
A
R
Output ripple=1 % Output ripple=2 %
50 3600 W 2500 W
100 2600 W 1300 W
Compliance up to very high
power levels is achieved
Factor Correction
102
Using only a RE (XIII)
Can we get a very fast transient
response if we have a very fast
output voltage feedback loop?
The dynamics depends on
the capacitor
The capacitor is recharged
each 10ms (100 Hz) the
faster response is 10 ms
Line
Power supply
DC/DC
converter
as
Resistor
Emulator
O
u
t
p
u
t

No devices to store
energy at 100 Hz
Power
Voltage
specific moments no energy
available to maintain the output
voltage when the output current
changes, except the energy
stored in the capacitor
Current
Energy
stored here
Factor Correction
103
Using only a RE (XIV)
Simulating the dynamic response
The output voltage takes 90 ms in
recovering the steady state
f
C
= 10 Hz
Output voltage
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
360
380
400
420
40 ms
90 ms
Time (ms)
4300 W 1700 W
f
C
= 1kHz
20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (ms)
360
370
380
390
400
410
2600 W 400 W
10 ms
Output voltage
The output voltage takes 10 ms in
recovering the steady state
Factor Correction
104
Using only a RE (XV)
Resistor Emulator topologies: low power
Line Power supply
Load
(Electronic
circuitry)
Voltage
Current
Voltage
Current
Line
Power supply
Load
(Electronic
circuitry)
Flyback
based
SEPIC
based
Factor Correction
105
Using only a RE (XVI)
Resistor Emulator topologies: medium power
Line
Power supply
Load
(Electronic
circuitry)
Voltage
Current
Line
Power supply
Load
(Electronic
circuitry)
Voltage
Current
Current-fed Push-Pull based
Factor Correction
106
Using only a RE (XVII)
Resistor Emulator topologies: high power
Line
Power supply
Load
(Electronic
circuitry)
Voltage
Current
Current-fed Full-bridge based
Line
Power supply
Voltage
Current
Load
(Electronic
circuitry)
Factor Correction
107
Using only a RE (XVIII)
Example of application: a power supply
for a 300 + 300 W audio amplifier (I)
Flyback based
Universal line voltage
Flyback with 2 Cool-MOS in parallel
10 ms dynamic response is good enough for this application
Line
Power supply
300 W audio
amplifier
(Channel Right)
300 W audio
amplifier
(Channel Left)
+70 V
-70 V
GND
85-250 V
Factor Correction
108
Using only a RE (XIX)
Example of application: a power supply
for a 300 + 300 W audio amplifier (II)
300 + 300 W
audio amplifier
Power supply
For Behringer
Developed at the
University of Oviedo
(GEI group)
Factor Correction
109
0.5 A/div 5ms/div
A
R
= 10
f
C
= 1 kHz
A
R
= 25 f
C
= 1 kHz
0.5 A/div 5ms/div
A
R
= 40 f
C
= 1 kHz
0.5 A/div 5ms/div
0.5 A/div 5ms/div
A
R
= 10
f
C
= 10 Hz
Simulated Result
Simulated Result
Simulated Result Simulated Result
Using only a RE (XX)
Experimental results: line waveforms
Resistor Emulator based on a 300 W boost converter
Factor Correction
110
1/3 Full load Full load
60 ms
f
C
= 10 Hz
Using only a RE (XXI)
Experimental results: transient response
10 ms
f
C
= 1kHz
1/3 Full load
Full load
Factor Correction
111
Using only a RE (XXII)
Conclusions of the use of isolated Resistor
Emulators as the only conversion stage for
medium-speed response applications (I)
Many applications do not need fast dynamic response. In
these cases conventional Resistor Emulators (like flyback)
can be used directly as power supply with no second stage
and with several advantages:
Low cost and size (no second stage)
Very low harmonic content
Can be used in high and low power applications.
Can be used with universal line voltage
Factor Correction
112
Using only a RE (XXIII)
medium-speed response applications (II)
The limitations in the transient response are:
The 100-120 Hz output voltage ripple only depends on the
capacitor value
This ripple ripple cannot be reduced by increasing the
corner frequency of the output-voltage feedback loop
The maximum effective corner frequency is about 1kHz
(10 times the ripple frequency)
The minimum response time is 10-8.3 ms (one 100-120 Hz
cycle)
Factor Correction
113
Using only a RE (XXIV)
medium-speed response applications (III)
This solution should not be used if the output voltage is
relatively low (lower than 12 V) due to the fact that the bulk
capacitor is placed just at the output, which means:
Energy stored at low voltage Large value of the
capacitor size
High current levels passing through the capacitor
Large capacitor losses due to the ESR
Factor Correction
114
Outline
Introduction
Class D
Factor Correction
115
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
High-efficiency post-regulators (I)
f
p
: 1000 Hz
f
p
: 10 Hz
Can we improve the dynamic response
of a Resistor Emulator with a low
penalty in the converter efficiency?
90 ms
10 ms
A
R
Output voltage
20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (ms)
f [Hz]
-135
-90
-45
0
45
1 10 100 1000 10000
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
|A
R
| [dB]
A
R
[]
Time (ms)
10
Line curent
f
p
f
p

The minimum response time is
10-8.3 ms (one 100-120 Hz cycle)
Another stage can be connected to
improve the transient response
Factor Correction
116
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
Line
High-efficiency post-regulators (II)
Characteristic of the high-efficiency
post regulators
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O
Output
High-
efficiency
post-
regulators
Common characteristics of all high-
efficiency post-regulators:
Low additional cost and size
Only a fraction of the total power
undergoes a power switching processing
Very high efficiency: 96-98%
No short-circuit protection in the post-
regulator
V
1
and V
O
are voltages of similar values
Factor Correction
117
High-efficiency post-regulators (III) Use of the high-efficiency post regulators
in multiple-output applications
Lowpass
filter
Line
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O
Output
High-
efficiency
post-
regulators
10 ms
f
p
: 1000 Hz
90 ms
f
p
: 10 Hz
Some slow or medium-speed outputs and
some fast response outputs
f
p
: 10 Hz
f
p
: 1000 Hz
Factor Correction
118
High-efficiency post-regulators (IV)
Operation principle of the high-
efficiency post regulators
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
Line
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O
Output
How can we implement the
voltage source?
+ -
V
S

Time
v
1
v
O
v
S
High-efficiency
post-regulators
Factor Correction
119
?
High-efficiency post-regulators (V)
Implementing the
voltage source V
S
(I)
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
Line
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O
Output
+ -
V
S

High-efficiency
post-regulators
Small
DC/DC
converter
Where should we
connect the input port
of this converter?
Factor Correction
120
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
Line
+
-
V
1

High-efficiency post-regulators (VI)
Option #1: connect the input port to an
additional Resistor Emulator output
Implementing the
voltage source V
S
(II)
+
-
V
O
Output
High-efficiency
post-regulators
+ -
V
S

Small
DC/DC
converter
One additional
output
Factor Correction
121
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
Line
+
-
V
1

High-efficiency post-regulators (VII)
Option #2: connect the input port to the
Resistor Emulator output
Implementing the voltage
source V
S
(III)
+
-
V
O
Output
High-efficiency
post-regulators
+ -
V
S

Small
DC/DC
converter
Factor Correction
122
High-efficiency post-regulators (VIII)
Implementing the voltage
source V
S
(IV)
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O

High-efficiency post-
regulators
+ -
V
S

Small
DC/DC
converter
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O

High-efficiency
post-regulators
+ -
V
S

Small
DC/DC
converter
V
2
Option #1: connect the input
port to an additional output of
the Resistor Emulator
port to the Resistor
Emulator output
Two-Input Buck (TIBuck)
Series-Switching post-
Regulator (SSPR)
Factor Correction
123
High-efficiency post-regulators (IX)
Why is the efficiency of these post-
regulators very high?
Time
v
1
v
O
v
S
V
1
, V
O
>> V
S

P
1
, P
O
>> P
S

+
-
V
O

DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
+
-
V
1

High-efficiency
post-regulators
+ -
V
S

Small
DC/DC
converter
I
O
The Small DC/DC converter is processing
only a small part of the output power
Low losses in the post-regulator
High efficiency post-regulator
Factor Correction
124
High-efficiency post-regulators (X)
Why is not possible to implement a
over-load or short-circuit protection
in these post-regulators?
then V
O
= V
1
= 0
+
-
V
O

DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
+
-
V
1

High-efficiency
post-regulators
+ -
V
S

Small
DC/DC
converter
I
O
The over-load or short-circuit
protection must be implemented
in the Resistor Emulator
0
A over-load occurs
If V
S
= 0,
Factor Correction
125
High-efficiency post-regulators (XI)
Introducing the Two-Input Buck
(TIBuck)
This is a Buck converter with
two inputs instead of one
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O

High-efficiency
post-regulators
+ -
V
S

Small
DC/DC
converter
V
2
+
-
V
1

V
2

+
-
V
O

DC/DC converter
High-efficiency
post-regulators
V
S
+

-

Factor Correction
126
+
-
V
O

+
-
V
1

V
2

Standard
controller
Resistor
Emulator
controller
High-efficiency post-regulators (XII)
Single-output Resistor Emulator
based on a Flyback + a TIBuck
post-regulator
TIBuck
post-regulators
Factor Correction
127
High-efficiency post-regulators (XIII)
Multiple-output Resistor Emulator
based on a Flyback + a TIBuck
post-regulator
+
-
V
O

+
-
V
1

V
2

Standard
controller
Resistor
Emulator
controller
+
-
V
3

-
+
V
4

TIBuck
post-regulators
Factor Correction
128
V
1
> V
O

V
QMAX
= V
1

V
DMAX
= V
1

V
O
= V
1
d
(d is the duty cycle)
V
2
> V
O
> V
1

V
QMAX
= V
2
-V
1
V
DMAX
= V
2
-V
1
V
O
= V
2
d + V
1
(1-d)
(from volts-second balance)

Buck
V
1
V
O
+ V
Q
-
+
V
D

-
TIBuck
V
2
V
1
V
O
+ V
Q
-
+
V
D

-
High-efficiency post-regulators (XIV)
Comparing Buck and TIBuck
converters
Factor Correction
129
V
O
= V
2
d + V
1
(1-d) =
Poorly
regulated
Controlled
High-efficiency post-regulators (XV)
DC equivalent circuit
for the TIBuck
(V
2
-V
1
)d + V
1

(V
2
-V
1
)d
V
1
V
O
+
PWM
-
Regulated
Factor Correction
130
V
2
range
Voltages
Time
V
O
V
2
V
1
+
V
D

-
V
O
+ V
Q
-
PWM
+
-
V
1
range
High-efficiency post-regulators (XVI)
Relationship between input
and output voltages (I)
ALWAYS
V
2
> V
O
> V
1
Factor Correction
131
High-efficiency post-regulators (XVII)
+
-
V
O

+
-
V
1

V
2

Relationship between input
and output voltages (II)
V
O
Voltages
Time
v
2
v
1
Transient response
Steady state
ALWAYS V
2
> V
O
> V
1
, taking into account the
worse case of transient response and ripple

Case of being used as post-regulator of a Resistor Emulator
Factor Correction
132
High-efficiency post-regulators (XVIII)
Comparing filter inductance for
Buck and TIBuck converters (I)
Buck
V
1
V
O
+
V
Filter

-
L
B
TIBuck
V
2
V
1
V
O
L
TB
V
Filter

-
+
Time
V
Filter

V
O
V
2
V
1
V
Filter

Time
V
O
V
1
Lower value in the case of
the TIBuck converter (in
practice, ~3 times lower)
Factor Correction
133
CCM: 2L/RT > K
CRIT

DCM: 2L/RT < K
CRIT
High-efficiency post-regulators (XIX)
Comparing filter inductance for
Buck and TIBuck converters (II)
Boundary between continuous and discontinuous conduction modes
TIBuck
V
2
/

V
1
=4

K
CRIT
d
(duty cycle)
Buck
1
0
0 1
1.25
2
3
) d 1 (
CRIT
K =
Buck:
1 ) 1
1
V /
2
V ( d
) 1
1
V /
2
V )( d 1 ( d
CRIT
K
+

=
TIBuck:
Lower value in the case
of the TIBuck converter

Factor Correction
134
High-efficiency post-regulators (XX)
Explaining the high efficiency of
the TIBuck converter (I)
d = 0.55
P
Losses
= 10 W
q = 90 / 100 = 90%
V
OB
= 50 V
I
O
= 1.8 A
P
OB
= 90 W
Realistic case for a Buck converter:
V
G
= 100 V
I
G
= 1 A
P
G
= 100 W
R

= V
OB
/I
O
= 27.8 O
V
G
V
OB
Buck
R
Factor Correction
135
V
G
V
OB
Buck
V
OB
= 50 V
I
O
= 1.8 A
P
OB
= 90 W
V
G
= 100 V
I
G
= 1 A
P
G
= 100 W
d = 0.55
P
Losses
= 10 W
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXI)
Explaining the high efficiency of
the TIBuck converter (II)
I
O
= 1.8 A
I
O
= 1.8 A
V
1
= 300 V
P
1
= 540 W
We are processing 540 W FREE !!
q = (90 + 540) / (100 + 540) = 98.4 %
I
O
= 1.8 A R
1
= V
1
/I
O
= 166.7 O
V
1
= 300 V
P
1
= 540 W
V
1
I
O
I
O
R
1
Factor Correction
136
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXII) Explaining the high efficiency of
the TIBuck converter (III)
V
OB
= 50 V
I
O
= 1.8 A
P
OB
= 90 W
I
O
= 1.8 A
V
1
= 300 V
P
1
= 540 W
I
O
= 1.8 A
V
1
= 300 V
P
1
= 540 W
V
G
= 100 V
I
G
= 1 A
P
G
= 100 W
27.8 O
166.7 O
d = 0.5
I
2
I
1
d = 0.5
V
1

V
2

194.5 O
I
O
= 1.8 A
V
O
= V
OB
+ V
1
= 350 V
P
O
= P
OB
+ P
1
= 630 W
q = 630 / 640 = 98.4%
I
2
= I
G
= 1 A
I
1
= I
O
- I
G
= 0.8 A
V
2
= V
G
+ V
1
= 400 V
P
2
= 400 W
P
1
= 240 W
P
i
= P
2
+ P
1
=640

Factor Correction
137
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXIII) Explaining the high efficiency of
the TIBuck converter (IV)
The closer V
2
and V
1
(and,
therefore V
O
) the higher
the efficiency
V
2
V
1
V
O
V
1
V
2
V
1
V
O
-V
1
V
1
V
1
V
2
V
1
V
O
-V
1
V
1
V
1
V
2
V
1
V
O
-V
1
V
1
Factor Correction
138
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXIV) Explaining the high efficiency of
the TIBuck converter (V)
q
TB
is the TIBuck efficiency
V
1
V
2
V
1
V
O
-V
1
V
1
q
TB
=1

q
B
=50%
75%
90%
85%
0.4 0.6 0.8 1
100

80

60
TIbuck efficiency
V
1
/V
O
O
1
B
B
TB
V
V
) (1- 1- q
q
= q
q
B
is the Buck-part efficiency
High efficiency TIbuck
with a limited efficiency
in the Buck part
q
TB
=96.6%
Factor Correction
139
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXV)
Small-signal transfer functions of
the TIBuck converter
Similar to the case of a Buck converter, but faster due
to the lower values of the output filter components
V
2
V
1
V
O
R
C
TB

L
TB

Output filter
1 s
R
L
s L C
TB 2
TB TB
1
+ +
O
v
D
V
2
-V
1

1-

D
+
+
+
2
v
1
v
d
The quantities with hats

are the perturbations
Factor Correction
140
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXVI)
Implementing the transistor driver
Requirements:
Galvanic isolation
Wide duty cycle operation
Factor Correction
141
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXVII)
Experimental results of
TIBuck-based prototypes (I)
TIBuck DC/DC post-regulators
V
2
V
1
V
O
I
O
L
TB
C
TB
f
S
TIBuck 1
440-400 V

360-320 V 380 V 1-0.1 A 1 mH 250 nF 100 kHz
TIBuck 2
67-57 V 52-42 V

54.5 V 4-0.4 A 51.4 H 4.7 F

100 kHz

Factor Correction
142
V
2
=400V
V
1
=320V
V
2
=440V
V
1
=360V
V
2
=420V
V
1
=340V
100 200 300
Output power [W]
100
99
98
Efficiency [%]
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXVIII)
TIBuck-based prototypes (II)
TIBuck 1: overall efficiency
Factor Correction
143
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXIX)
TIBuck-based prototypes (III)
100
95
90
85
Efficiency [%]
0 500 100
0
Output current [mA]
V
2
= 80 V
V
1
= 0 V
V
O
= 40 V
V
2
= 180 V
V
1
= 100 V
V
O
= 140 V
280,200
240
380,300,340
V
1
V
2
V
O
TIBuck 1 efficiency with V
2
& V
1
variable, V
2
-V
1
=80 V, V
O
=(V
1
+V
2
)/2
Being V
2
-V
1
a constant, the
closer V
2
and V
1
(and, therefore
V
O
) the higher the efficiency
Factor Correction
144
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXX) Experimental results of
TIBuck-based prototypes (IV)
TIBuck 1 and Buck-part efficiencies
The experimental results fit very well with the calculated ones
TIBuck
(calculated)
TIBuck
(measured)
Output current [mA)]
Efficiency [%]
100
90
80
70
200 400 600
Buck-part
(measured)
q
TB
is the TIBuck efficiency
V
1
V
2
V
1
V
O
-V
1
V
1
q=1

q
B
is the Buck-part efficiency
O
1
B
B
TB
V
V
) (1- 1- q
q
= q
Factor Correction
145
100 1,000 10,000
0
-20
20
40
Gain [dB] , phase
Frequency [Hz]
-180
-90
0
Measured
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXI) Experimental results of
TIBuck-based prototypes (V)
0 100 200
100
96
92
Output power [W]
Efficiency [%]
TIBuck 2: overall efficiency and small-signal modelling
Theoretical
Theoretical
Factor Correction
146
1.5mF
1.5mF
51.4H
4.7F
IRF7403
10
T045
54V
4A
85-264V
IRFPC50
25CPF40
24 t
9 t
3 t
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXII) Experimental results of
TIBuck-based prototypes (VI)
Resistor Emulator based on a
Flyback converter + TIBuck 2
UC3854
UC3825
80 120 160 200
Output power [W]
Overall efficiency [%]
84
86
88
220V
110V
0.01A/s
2.1A
3.23A
I
O

V
2
5V/div
V
O
1V/div
Transient response
200 ms/div
Factor Correction
147
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXIII) Experimental results of
TIBuck-based prototypes (VII)
Voltage ripple cancellation in the case of the Resistor
Emulator based on a Flyback converter + TIBuck 2
+
-
V
O

V
1

V
2

51.4H
4.7F
IRF7403
10T045
UC3825
V
2
2V/div.
V
O
0.5V/div.
V
1
2V/div.
Voltage ripples
Can we improve the
ripple cancellation?
Voltage-Mode control
Factor Correction
148
+
-
V
O

V
1

V
2

51.4H
4.7F
IRF7403
10T045
UC3825
Input voltage feedforward
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXIV) Experimental results of
TIBuck-based prototypes (VIII)
Other TIBuck control methods to improve the voltage ripple cancellation
Feedforward
Input voltage feedforward
Current mode control (average current mode control)
+ V
2
+ V
1
R
2
R
1
C
ext
R
ext
+ V
dc
v
C
UC3825
Feedforward
implementation
Factor Correction
149
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXV) Experimental results of
TIBuck-based prototypes (IX)
Average current mode control
+
-
V
O

V
1

V
2

51.4H
4.7F
IRF7403
10T045
UC3825
TL082
Voltage ripples
V
O
2mV/div.
V
2
2V/div.
V
1
2V/div.
Voltage ripple attenuation ~
66dB (1900 times). Also,
excellent transient response
V
2
(5 V/div)
V
O
(20 mV/div)
100 ms/div
Transient response
0.01A/s
2.1A
3.23A
I
O

Factor Correction
150
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXVI)
Introducing the option #2: Series-
Switching Post-Regulator (SSPR)
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O

High-efficiency post-
regulators
+ -
V
S

Small
DC/DC
converter
port to the Resistor
Emulator output
Series-Switching post-
Regulator (SSPR)
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O

+ -
V
S

Small DC/DC
converter
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O

Small DC/DC
converter
+
-
V
S

Re-drawing
Factor Correction
151
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXVII)
Introducing the SSPR based
on a Forward converter
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O

Small DC/DC
converter
+
-
V
S

Re-placing
the capacitor
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O

Small DC/DC
converter
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O

Small DC/DC
converter
+
-
V
S

Controller
The controlled output
voltage is V
O
instead of V
S

Factor Correction
152
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXVIII)
Other SSPR implementations
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O

Small DC/DC
converter
Controller
The implementation based on a Flyback
becomes a Boost converter if n
1
=n
2
A Boost converter has a very high
efficiency if the input and output voltages
are very close
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O

+ -
V
S

Small DC/DC
converter
Implementation based on a Flyback
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O

Controller
n
1
n
2

If n
1
=n
2
Factor Correction
153
+
-
V
O

+
-
V
1

Standard
controller
Resistor
Emulator
controller
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXIX)
Single-output Resistor
Emulator based on a Flyback
+ a Forward-type SSPR
Forward-type SSPR
Factor Correction
154
High-efficiency post-regulators (XL)
Multiple-output Resistor
Emulator based on a Flyback
+ a Forward-type SSPR
+
-
V
O

+
-
V
1

Standard
controller
Resistor
Emulator
controller
+
-
V
2

-
+
V
3

Forward-type SSPR
Factor Correction
155
High-efficiency post-regulators (XLI)
Computing SSPRs efficiency (I)
V
O
+
-
V
S
+ -
V
1
+
-
SSPR
q
ss
V
O
= V
1
+ V
S
I
1
= I
iDC
+ I
O
q
C
=
V
S
I
O
V
1
I
iDC
Being K
S
=V
S
/V
1
Small DC/DC
converter
q
C
PWM
+
-
I
1
I
O
I
O
I
iDC
q
SS
=
V
O
I
O
V
1
I
1
=
1+K
S
1+
K
S
q
C
Factor Correction
156
High-efficiency post-regulators (XLII)
Computing SSPRs efficiency (II)
Example:
q
C
= 80%
K
S
= V
S
/V
1
= 0.1
q
ss
= 97.7%
The lower K
S
, the higher the efficiency
However, V
S
must reaches V
Smax

and must be always positive
Voltages
v
O
Time
Steady
state
Transient
response
v
Smax
v
1
v
S
K
S
=0.3
0.1
0.2
60 70 80 90
100
80
85
90
95
100
K
S
=V
S
/V
1
q
c
[%]
q
SS
[%]
Factor Correction
157
11DQ10
E20
12CTQ045
47H, E20
47F
SMP20N20
6,800F
28 : 28 : 15
f
S
= 100 kHz
High-efficiency post-regulators (XLIII)
Experimental results of a
Forward-type SSPR (I)
V
1
= 47V
+
-
V
O
= 54.5 V
I
O
= 4 A
+
-
V
S
= 7.5V
+
-
0 50
100 150 200 250
95
96
97
98
Output power [W]
Efficiency [%]
Factor Correction
158
High-efficiency post-regulators (XLIV) Experimental results of a
Forward-type SSPR (II)
V
1

+
-
V
O

+
-
UC3825
TL082
Average current mode control
V
1
(1V/div)
V
O
(10mV/div)
10 ms/div
Voltage ripples
V
1
(5V/div)
V
O
(20mV/div)
200 ms/div
Transient response
0.01A/s
1.83A
3.67A
I
O

(Attenuation ~ 50dB)
Factor Correction
159
Conclusions of the use of High-
efficiency post-regulators to
of Resistors Emulators (I)
Low additional cost and size
Low output voltage ripple and fast dynamic response
Very high post-regulator efficiency (96-98%)
Very low harmonic content
Can be used in high and low power applications
Can be used with universal line voltage
Very interesting for multiple-output applications with
different transient response specifications
High-efficiency post-regulators (XLV)
Factor Correction
160
Conclusions of the use of High-
efficiency post-regulators to
of Resistors Emulators (II)
V
1
and V
O
are voltages of similar values
It is not a good solution for low output voltage applications
because the energy is stored near the output voltage
No short-circuit and/or overload protection can be
implemented in the post-regulator (it must be implemented in
the Resistor Emulator)
However, short-circuit overcurrent from the bulk capacitor
can be diverted through an additional diode (see next slide)
High-efficiency post-regulators (XLVI)
Factor Correction
161
+
-
V
O

+
-
V
1

V
2

C
B1

C
B2

High-efficiency post-regulators (XLVII)

Additional diode to divert short-
circuit overcurrent from the bulk
capacitor
V
1

+
-
V
O

+
-
+
-
V
1

+
-
V
O

High-efficiency
post-regulators
+ -
V
S

Small
DC/DC
converter
overcurrent
The overcurrent is
diverted by the diode D
a

The drive pulses must be
maintained to discharge C
B2

C
B1
is discharged through
the additional diode D
a

The drive pulses must be eliminated
D
a

D
a
D
a

Factor Correction
162
Outline
Introduction
Class D
Factor Correction
163
SingleStage PFCs (I) Standard Two-Stage approach (I)
High voltage
Almost-constant voltage
Low bulk capacitor size
Resistor
Emulator
(Boost
converter)
Line
DC Bus
Voltage
Feedback-Loop 2
-
Current
Current
Feedback-Loop
Load
Conventional
DC/DC
converter
-
Voltage
Feedback-Loop 1
Factor Correction
164
SingleStage PFCs (II) Standard Two-Stage approach (II)
Resistor
Emulator
(Boost
converter)
Line
DC Bus
Voltage
Feedback-Loop 2
-
Current
Current
Feedback-Loop
Load
Conventional
DC/DC
converter
-
Voltage
Feedback-Loop 1
Expensive
Compliance with IEC 1000-3-2
DC bus regulated (interesting
for 85-264V ac )
Fast output voltage response
Low efficiency?
Not for universal line
Factor Correction
165
SingleStage PFCs (III) Introducing Single-Stage PFCs (I)
Resistor
Emulator
(Boost
converter)
Line
DC Bus
Voltage
Feedback-Loop 2
-
Current
Current
Feedback-Loop
Load
Conventional
DC/DC
converter
-
Voltage
Feedback-Loop 1
Line
DC Bus Load
Single-Stage
PFC
-
Voltage
Feedback-Loop
Current
Factor Correction
166
Line
DC Bus Load
Single-Stage
PFC
-
Voltage
Feedback-Loop
Current
SingleStage PFCs (IV) Introducing Single-Stage PFCs (II)
DC bus unregulated (not very
interesting for 85-264 V)
Cheap
Compliance with IEC 1000-3-2
Fast output voltage response
Factor Correction
167
SingleStage PFCs (V) Introducing Single-Stage PFCs (III)
Line
DC/DC
converter
R
Line
DC/DC
converter
L
A resistor
An inductor
Previous methods to increase
the conduction angle
DC/DC
converter
Line
Current
Z
S

Simple passive components
Factor Correction
168
SingleStage PFCs (VI) Introducing Single-Stage PFCs (IV)
Could we find a small-size lossless impedance Z
S
?
Lossless Based on inductors
Small size Working at the switching frequency
Small size Only diodes (no transistors) It is an additional output
DC/DC
converter
Line
Current
Z
S

Current
DC/DC
converter Line
Factor Correction
169
Line
Load
Bulk
capacitor
Conventional
DC/DC
converter
-
Magnetic
device
HIAN: High Impedance Active Network
+
-
HIAN
Current
Equivalent circuit
for many S
2
PFC
SingleStage PFCs (VII)
Introducing Single-Stage PFCs (V)
Factor Correction
170
Example of topological transformations (I)
SingleStage PFCs (VIII)
HIAN
DC/DC
Converter
DCM
HIAN
DCM
DC/DC
converter
Factor Correction
171
Example of topological transformations (II)
SingleStage PFCs (IX)
Presented at INTELEC 96
by F. S. Tsai, P. Markowski
& E. Whitcomb
n
S
= n
1
-n
S

n
1

n
2

n
S
DCM
n
1

n
2

n
S

DCM
n
S

n
1

n
2

DCM
Factor Correction
172
Example of topological transformations (III)
SingleStage PFCs (X)
n
1

n
2

n
S

DCM
n
2

DCM
n
S
=n
1

n
S
= n
1

Presented at PESC 94 by R. Redl, L. Balog and N. Sokal
Factor Correction
173
+
DC/DC
converter
HIAN
-
+
-
L
F
in DCM
#1. One inductor (in DCM)
+
-
L
F
in CCM L
d

#2. Two inductors
Only 1 inductor
Either high current
or voltage stress (it
will be explained later)
Examples of HIAN (I)
SingleStage PFCs (XI)
Low current and
voltage stress
2 inductors
Factor Correction
174
Examples of HIAN (II)
SingleStage PFCs (XII)
L
F
in CCM
+
-
L
d

L
F
in CCM
+
-
L
d2

L
d1

L
F
in CCM
+
-
L
d

L
F
in DCM
+
-
L
F
in DCM
+
-
Two
inductors
One inductor (in DCM)
Factor Correction
175
L
F

L
d

HIAN
Generalization
SingleStage PFCs (XIII)
Conventional
DC/DC
converter
HIAN
I
HIAN

+
-
V
HIAN

+
-
V
HIAN

I
HIAN

Delaying
inductor
Rectifier
Filter
inductor
Factor Correction
176
SingleStage PFCs (XIV)
Conventional
DC/DC
converter
HIAN
I
HIAN

+
-
V
HIAN

I
HIAN

+
-
V
HIAN

L
F

n
1
n
S

(b)
+
-
V
HIAN

I
HIAN

L
F

n
1

n
S

n
S

(c)
Cases to study:
1
st
) only L
F
and in DCM (DCM1)
Design parameters:
L
d
= 0
L
F
in DCM
n
1
/n
S
+
-
V
HIAN

I
HIAN

n
1

n
S

(a)
L
F

Factor Correction
177
SingleStage PFCs (XV)
Conventional
DC/DC
converter
HIAN
I
HIAN

+
-
V
HIAN

+
-
V
HIAN

I
HIAN

L
F

L
d

n
1

n
S

(d)
I
HIAN

+
-
V
HIAN

L
F

L
d

n
1

n
S

(e)
+
-
V
HIAN

I
HIAN

L
F
L
d

n
1

n
S

n
S

(f)
Design parameters:
L
d

K = L
F
/L
d

n
1
/n
S
Cases to study:
2
nd
) two inductors, L
F
in CCM
Factor Correction
178
SingleStage PFCs (XVI)
Conventional
DC/DC
converter
HIAN
I
HIAN

+
-
V
HIAN

+
-
V
HIAN

I
HIAN

L
d

n
1
n
S

(g)
I
HIAN

+
-
V
HIAN

L
d

n
1

n
S

(h)
Cases to study:
3
rd
) only L
d
(DCM2)
+
-
V
HIAN

I
HIAN
L
d1

n
1

n
S

(i)
n
S

L
d2

Design parameters:
L
F
= 0
L
d

n
1
/n
S
Factor Correction
179
From:
(e)
+
-
V
HIAN

I
HIAN

L
d
, I
HIAN

(h)
+
-
V
HIAN

I
HIAN

L
d
, I
HIAN

(e)
I
HIAN

+
-
V
HIAN

4L
d
, I
HIAN
/2
(h)
I
HIAN

+
-
V
HIAN

4L
d
, I
HIAN
/2
SingleStage PFCs (XVII) Cases to study:
Two more HIANs
similar to
similar to
Factor Correction
180
SingleStage PFCs (XVIII)
Conventional
DC/DC
converter
HIAN
Focusing the analysis (I):
We need:
To choose the HIAN
according the application
requirements
To calculate the value of the
inductor(s) in order to have a
line current harmonic content
below the values specified in
the IEC 61000-3-2
How can we establish a relationship between the HIAN and the line
current harmonic content?
Equations:
+
-
V
HIAN

V
g
(et)
V
C
V
HIAN
= V
c
- |V
g
(et)|
I
HIAN

I
HIAN
= f(V
HIAN
) This is the Voltage-Current Characteristic, VCC
i
g
(et)
i
g
(et) = I
HIAN
if V
g
(et) > 0 and i
g
(et) = -I
HIAN
if V
g
(et) < 0
Factor Correction
181
Conventional
DC/DC
converter
HIAN
Therefore: we need to determine the Voltage-Current Characteristic,
VCC, for each HIAN
V
C

SingleStage PFCs (XIX)
+
-
V
HIAN

I
HIN

I
HIAN
= f(V
HIAN
)
Considerations for the study:
V
c
and the converter duty cycle d considered constant each line half-cycle
Focusing the analysis (II):
Factor Correction
182
The variation of V
c
should be as low as possible
V
HIAN
(I
HIAN average max
) as low as possible HIAN with L
d
.
V
HIAN

I
HIAN average

SingleStage PFCs (XX)
Previous design considerations (I)
L
F
L
d
+
-
V
HIAN

I
HIAN

L
d
=0
V
HIAN
(I
HIAN average max
)
L
F

+
-
V
HIAN

I
HIAN

L
d
=0
(a)
L
F

n
1
n
S

(b)
L
F

n
1

n
S

n
S

(c)
The case L
d
=0 is
not desirable
(cases a, b and c)
Factor Correction
183
L
F
in DCM
n
1
n
S

(b)
The current stress in the DC/DC converter should be as
low as possible
SingleStage PFCs (XXI)
Previous design considerations (II)
For this reason, the case L
d
=0 is not
desirable again (cases a, b and c)
(a)
L
F
in DCM
n
1

n
S

L
F

n
1

n
S

n
S

(c)
L
F
in DCM
The total inductor size should be
as small as possible
Factor Correction
184
SingleStage PFCs (XXII)
Voltage-Current Characteristics
(calculated from I
HIAN average
)
L
F
>>L
d
L
F
<<L
d
L
F
=0

V
HIAN
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
5
10
15
20
I
HIAN average
Results after solving the operation equations:
L
F
>>L
d
L
d
+
-
V
HIAN

I
HIAN

Case e
L
d

+
-
V
HIAN

I
HIAN

Case h
L
F
<<L
d
L
d
+
-
V
HIAN

I
HIAN

Case e
Factor Correction
185
SingleStage PFCs (XXIII)
Input current waveforms (examples)
obtained from the previous Voltage-
Current Characteristics
L
F
>>L
d
L
F
<<L
d L
F
=0

L
F
>>L
d
L
F
<<L
d
L
F
=0

V
HIAN
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
5
10
15
20
I
HIAN average
Voltage-Current Characteristics
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
0
5
10
15
20
I
HIAN average
line angle
Line waveforms
I
HIAN
depends on V
HIAN
, L
F
, L
d
and also on d, n
1
/n
S
and V
C

Factor Correction
186
SingleStage PFCs (XXIV)
Comparing Voltage-Current
Characteristics calculated from I
HIAN average

and from I
HIAN peak

L
F
=0
V
HIAN
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
5
10
15
20
I
HIAN

0 30 60 90 120 150 180
0
5
10
15
20
line angle
L
F
=0
I
HIAN

I
HIAN average
I
HIAN peak
I
HIAN average
I
HIAN peak
VCC
average
: to determine low-frequency harmonics
VCC
peak
: to determine size of magnetics and component
stress

Factor Correction
187
The values of V
c
, d, n
1
/n
S
and L
d
are the same for all the examples
+
-
V
HIAN

L
F

L
d

K = 0
K = 0.1
K = 1 K = 10
Examples of VCC
average
and VCC
peak
for
different HIAN
K = L
F
/L
d

+
-
V
HIAN

L
F
L
d

K = 0 K = 1
K = 10
K = 0.1
I
HIAN peak
I
HIAN average

SingleStage PFCs (XXV)
+
-
V
HIAN

L
F
L
d

K = 0 K = 0.1
K = 1 K = 10
L
d
Factor Correction
188
Higher K values have no effect in I
HIAN peak
Conclusions from the previous examples (I)
SingleStage PFCs (XXVI)
+
-
V
HIAN

L
F

L
d

K = 0
K = 0.1
K = 1 K = 10
+
-
V
HIAN

L
F
L
d

K = 0 K = 0.1
K = 1 K = 10
K = L
F
/L
d

+
-
V
HIAN

L
F
L
d

K = 0 K = 1
K = 10
K = 0.1
I
HIAN peak
I
HIAN average

L
d
Factor Correction
189
Due to the same reason, L
F
is not

necessary
Conclusions from the previous examples (II)
SingleStage PFCs (XXVII)
+
-
V
HIAN

L
F

L
d

K = 0
K = 0.1
K = 1 K = 10
+
-
V
HIAN

L
F
L
d

K = 0 K = 0.1
K = 1 K = 10
K = L
F
/L
d

+
-
V
HIAN

L
F
L
d

K = 0 K = 1
K = 10
K = 0.1
I
HIAN peak
I
HIAN average

L
d
Factor Correction
190
Higher impedance in the case of full-wave rectifier
lower L
d
values for the same impedance
Conclusions from the previous examples (III)
SingleStage PFCs (XXVIII)
+
-
V
HIAN

L
F

L
d

K = 0
K = 0.1
K = 1 K = 10
+
-
V
HIAN

L
F
L
d

K = 0 K = 0.1
K = 1 K = 10
K = L
F
/L
d

+
-
V
HIAN

L
F
L
d

K = 0 K = 1
K = 10
K = 0.1
I
HIAN peak
I
HIAN average

L
d

Factor Correction
191
Optimum design of an example SingleStage PFCs (XXIX)
Flyback as DC/DC converter
P
out
= 100 W
V
out
= 54 V
European AC voltage (190-265)
IEC 61000-3-2, Class D
Maximum duty = 0.35
33 W as limit between CCM and DCM
Switching frequency = 100 kHz

Factor Correction
192
GOOD
GOOD
K=0 K=0.1 K=0.5 K=1 K=2 K=10
L
d
(H) 70 542 268 268 291 353
L
F
(H) 0 54.2 134 268 582 3530
E I
x
2
L
x
(J) 943 1488 1003 1338 2179 9693
L
d
(H) 47.8 221 76.5 105.7 87.2 92.7
L
F
(H) 0 22.1 38.25 105.7 174.4 927
E I
x
2
L
x
(J) 424.5 770.2 440.8 603.7 773.9 2676
L
d
(H) 185.2 167 174.4 178.7 182.5 167.1
L
F
(H) 0 16.7 87.2 178.7 365 1671
E I
x
2
L
x
(J) 1107 1086 1213 1424 1845 5133
SingleStage PFCs (XXX)
L
F
L
d

(d)
L
F
L
d
L
d (f)
L
d
(e)
L
F
Total size of magnetic elements for the
previous example
K=L
F
/L
d

Factor Correction
193
GOOD
GOOD
SingleStage PFCs (XXXI)
Voltage and current stress for
the previous example
K=L
F
/L
d
0 0.1 0.5 1 2 10
V
C_max
(V) 423 540 425 413 415 415
I
S_peak
(A) 2.53 3.14 2.48 2.41 2.39 2.42
V
C_max
(V) 437 560 420 420 414 416
I
S_peak
(A)

2.24 2.7 2 2 1.97 1.93
V
C_max
(V)

420 415 418 419 418 420
I
S_peak
(A)

2 1.98 1.95 1.94 1.93 1.89
L
F
L
d

(d)
L
F
L
d
L
d (f)
L
d
(e)
L
F
Factor Correction
194
SingleStage PFCs (XXXII)
Summary of good designs for
the previous example (I)
K=L
F
/L
d
0.5 1
n
1
/n
S
1.813 1.875
V
C_max
(V) 425 413
L
d
(H) 268 268
L
F
(H) 134 268
E I
x
2
L
x
(J) 1003 1338
+
-
V
HIAN

L
F
L
d

n
S

n
1

Interesting for Forward DC/DC converters
P
out
= 100W
V
out
= 54V
Maximum duty 0.35
Switching frequency 100kHz
Factor Correction
195
SingleStage PFCs (XXXIII)
the previous example (II)
P
out
= 100W
V
out
= 54V
Maximum duty 0.35
K=L
F
/L
d
0.5 1
n
1
/n
S
3.125 2.625
V
C_max
(V) 420 420
L
d
(H) 76.5 105.7
L
F
(H) 38.25 105.7
E I
x
2
L
x
(J) 440.8 603.7
L
d
+
-
V
HIAN

L
F
n
S

n
1

Interesting for all DC/DC converters, except Forward
4L
d
+
-
V
HIAN

L
F
n
S

n
1

n
S

Factor Correction
196
SingleStage PFCs (XXXIV)
the previous example (III)
P
out
= 100W
V
out
= 54V
Maximum duty 0.35
Interesting for all DC/DC converters, except Forward
K=L
F
/L
d
0
n
1
/n
S
2.875
V
C_max
(V)

420
L
d
(H) 185.2
E I
x
2
L
x
(J) 1107
L
d
n
1

+
-
V
HIAN

n
S

n
S

L
d
Factor Correction
197
SingleStage PFCs (XXXV)
The HIAN type e is
the most interesting
from this point of view
Analysing the high-frequency harmonics
Full-wave HIANs are better than the half-wave one
Comparing full-wave HIANs:
E I
x
2
L
x
(J)
500 1500 1000 2000
0.1
0.2
High-frequency ripple at t/2 (A)
K=0
K=0.5
K=1
K=2
L
d
+
-
V
HIAN

L
F
K=0
K=0.5
K=1
K=2
+
-
V
HIAN

L
F
L
d
L
d
Better
Factor Correction
198
The lossless resistor model (I)
SingleStage PFCs (XXXVI)
Conventional
DC/DC
converter
HIAN
I
HIAN

+
-
V
HIAN

Is there any simple model for the HIAN?
Yes, if L
F
>>L
d

Factor Correction
199
V
HIAN
= V
i1
(d f
S
t
d
) =
V
i1
(d f
S
L
d
I
HIAN
/V
i1
) =
V
i1
d f
S
L
d
I
HIAN

If L
F
>>L
d

(small line current ripple)

I
Ld
D
2
D
1
L
d
L
F

V
i +
+
-
I
HIAN

V
HIAN
V
D2
+
-
V
i
V
D2
1/f
S
V
HIAN
= V
S
R
LF
i
HIAN
i
HIAN
- V
HIAN
+

The lossless resistor model (II) SingleStage PFCs (XXXVII)
I
HIAN
I
Ld
t
d
V
i1

t=d/f
S
Factor Correction
200
The lossless resistor model (III) SingleStage PFCs (XXXVIII)
|
C
Input current
After analysing the circuit using this model:
Compliance at 220V: |
C
>67.5
Compliance at 230V: |
C
>64.5
(in Class D)
V
S
DC/DC
converter
DC/DC
converter
L
F
L
d

If L
F
>>L
d
Loss-free resistor
R
LF
= L
d
f
s

Factor Correction
201
V
HIAN
= V
S
- R
LF
i
HIAN
V
HIAN
= 2V
i1
d - 4L
d
f
S
i
HIAN
If L
F
>>L
d
:

I
Ld
L
d
L
F

V
i
+
-
I
HIAN

V
HIAN
V
D
+
-
t
d
T
S
+ I
HIAN
i
Ld
dT
S
V
i
V
i1
V
D
V
p
1
- I
HIAN
The lossless resistor model (IV) SingleStage PFCs (XXXIX)
The same model is valid for
the rest of the HIAN based
on two inductors if L
F
>>L
d
Factor Correction
202
L
d
= 0.25L
d case d
W
Ld
= 0.25W
Ld case d
L
d

L
F

+
-
Case (e)
L
d

L
F

L
d

+
-
L
d
= 0.5L
d case d
W
Ld
= 0.5W
Ld case d
Case (f)
L
d

L
F

+
-
L
d
= L
d case d
W
Ld
= 0.25W
Ld case d
Case (e)
Comparing different HIAN based on
the lossless resistor model
SingleStage PFCs (XL)
W
Ld case d
= 0.5L
d case d
i
HIAN
2
(Energy, size)
+
-
L
F
L
d case d

Case (d)
Used as reference
Factor Correction
203
Current waveforms:
If v
g
< (V
C
-V
S
) i
g
= 0
If v
g
> (V
C
-V
S
) i
g
= (v
g
+V
S
-V
C
)/R
LF
From this set of equations, we obtain:
Voltage across bulk capacitor, V
C
Voltage across semiconductors (from V
C
)
V
S
R
LF

DC/DC
converter
V
DC
V
C
V
g
sinet

Conduction angle: |
c
= 2cos
-1
((V
C
-V
S
)/V
g
)

Power balance: P
g
= (|
C
-sin|
C
)V
g
2
/(2tR
LF
)

Output voltage V
DC
: V
DC
= f
1
(V
C
, d)

Voltage V
S
: V
S
= f
2
(V
C
, d)

Set of equations to design with the
lossless resistor model
SingleStage PFCs (XLI)
Factor Correction
204
Only one mag. core
Integrating delaying and filter
inductor into one magnetic core (I)
SingleStage PFCs (XLII)
L
d

L
F

L
d

V
i
+
-
V
HIAN
V
i
Can we integrate filter and delaying inductors into
only one magnetic core?
Factor Correction
205
inductor into one magnetic core (II)
SingleStage PFCs (XLIII)
L
lk1
L
lk2
L
m
1:n
Two-winding inductor
L
lk2
= L
lk1
1:1
L
lk1
L
m
a
b
c
Two-winding
inductor with r/t 1:1
L
lk1
a
b
c
L
lk1
L
m

Equivalent
circuit
Process of integration
Factor Correction
206
L
lk1
=L
d

L
m
=L
F

One mag. core
L
lk1
=L
d

b
c
a
E Core
E Core
Example: Two-winding, top-bottom arrangement (coupling not very tight)
c
Winding #1
a
Winding #2
b
inductor into one magnetic core (III)
SingleStage PFCs (XLIV)
Factor Correction
207
Line
Load
Bulk
capacitor
Flyback
HIAN
case d
L
d

Examples of a converter with HIAN (I)
SingleStage PFCs (XLV)
Factor Correction
208
Examples of a converter with HIAN (II)
SingleStage PFCs (XLVI)
Line
Load
Bulk
capacitor
Half-Bridge
HIAN case e

L
d

L
F

Factor Correction
209
Examples of a converter with HIAN (III)
SingleStage PFCs (XLVII)
Line
Load
Bulk
capacitor
Half-Bridge
HIAN case e

L
D

L
Factor Correction
210
Examples of a converter with HIAN (IV)
SingleStage PFCs (XLVIII)
Load
Bulk
capacitor
Line
Flyback
L
d

L
F

HIAN
case e
Factor Correction
211
Examples of a converter with HIAN (V)
SingleStage PFCs (XLIX)
Load
Bulk
capacitor
Line
Flyback
HIAN with
magnetic
integration
Factor Correction
212
Experimental results with K=L
F
/L
d
=0.5
(I)
SingleStage PFCs (L)
L
d
=76.5 H (E16)
L
F
=38 H (E12)
Efficiency 87%
Class D
Flyback, 100 W, HIAN case e (4 diodes)
Factor Correction
213
F
/L
d
=0.5 (II)
SingleStage PFCs (LI)
L
d
=76.5 H (E16)
L
F
=38 H (E12)
Efficiency 87%
Class D
Factor Correction
214
F
/L
d
=1 (I)
SingleStage PFCs (LII)
L
d
=105 H (E16)
L
F
=105 H (E16)
Efficiency 87%
Class D
Factor Correction
215
F
/L
d
=1 (II)
SingleStage PFCs (LIII)
L
d
=105 H (E16)
L
F
=105 H (E16)
Efficiency 87%
Class D
Factor Correction
216
F
/L
d
>1 (I)
SingleStage PFCs (LIV)
190-265V
rms
50V dc
BYW51
25-100W
32t 15t
15t
BYW51
200H
20F
47F
0.47F
0.47F
f
S
= 100kHz
SPP11N60S5
(Cool MOS)
+
-
Different
HIANs
20t
Half-bridge prototype
Factor Correction
217
F
/L
d
>1 (II)
SingleStage PFCs (LV)
47F
190-265V
50V dc
25-100W
28t
25CPF40
33F
12t
IRFPC50
+
-
Different
HIANs
14t
f
S
= 100kHz
Flyback
prototype
Factor Correction
218
F
/L
d
>1 (III)
SingleStage PFCs (LVI)
Implementations of the HIAN
IEC 61000-3-2 Class D, 100W, 190-265V
+
-
#1
125H (E16)
700H (E20)
MUR140
+
-
#3
500H (E16)
700H (E20)
MUR160
+
-
#2
250H (E16)
250H (E16)
700H (E20)
MUR160
#4
1.3mH (E30)
108 turns,
top-bottom
L
lk
= 250H
+
-
MUR160
Factor Correction
219
F
/L
d
>1 (IV)
SingleStage PFCs (LVII)
0.5A/div
V
g
= 190V rms
1A/div
V
g
= 230V rms
Half-bridge prototype: Input-
current waveforms & harmonics
P
g
=112W
PF= 0.795
THD= 60.4%
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
0.2
0.4
nth harmonic
Input current [A]
IEC 61000-3-2
Class D
measured
Factor Correction
220
F
/L
d
>1 (V)
SingleStage PFCs (LVIII)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
0.2
0.4
nth harmonic
Input current [A]
P
g
=107.5W
IEC 61000-3-2
Class D
measured
Flyback prototype: Input-
current waveform & harmonics
0.5A/div
V
g
= 230V rms
Factor Correction
221
F
/L
d
>1 (VI)
SingleStage PFCs (LIX)
With HIAN types
#1, #2 & #3
190V rms
265V rms
230V
40 60 80 100
80
85
90
95
100
Efficiency [%]
Input power [W]
Half-bridge with HIAN
(only power stage)
190V rms
265V rms
230V
70
75
80
85
90
Efficiency [%]
40 60 80 100
Input power [W]
Flyback with HIAN
(complete converter)
With HIAN type #1
Factor Correction
222
F
/L
d
>1 (VII)
SingleStage PFCs (LX)
265V rms
+
+
+ +
230V rms
X
X
X X
190V rms
Flyback transformer
in DCM
0
100
200
300
400
500
0 20 40 60 80 100
+
X
Experimental results
}
Bulk cap. voltage [V]
Input power [W]
Theoretical
Flyback with HIAN
Theoretical
265V rms
230V rms
190V rms
0 20 40 60 80 100
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Experimental results
Input power [W]
Half-bridge with HIAN
Bulk cap. voltage [V]
The maximum voltage across the bulk capacitor is lower than 450V
Factor Correction
223
Conclusions of the use of Single-Stage PFC (I)
SingleStage PFCs (LXI)
Many Single-Stage PFCs can be described as an arrangement
made up of a line rectifier, a conventional DC/DC converter and a
High Impedance Active Network (HIAN)
This HIAN is an additional output of the DC/DC converter that
re-cycles a part of energy
Using Single-Stage PFC based on the use of HIANs we achieve:
Low cost and size (no second stage)
The energy is stored at high voltage moderate bulk capacitor
size
A harmonic content low enough to comply with the IEC 61000-
3-2 in Class A and Class D

Factor Correction
224
Conclusions of the use of Single-Stage PFC (II)
SingleStage PFCs (LXII)
Only a few of energy is re-cycled to get compliance with the
regulations High efficiency is achieved
Many different HIAN implementations are possible. To
comply with the regulations in Class D, those based on two
inductors are the most attractive.
The size of the additional inductors are very small (e.g. two
E16 cores for a 100 W converter). Moreover, both inductors
can be integrated into only one magnetic core
The variation of the voltage across the bulk capacitor when
the line voltage and the load change is reasonable (maximum
voltage below 450 V DC when the line is 265 V AC)
Factor Correction
225
Conclusions of the use of
Single-Stage PFC (III)
SingleStage PFCs (LXIII)
Fast output response due to the location where the DC/DC
converter is placed
The main limitations are:
The voltage across the bulk capacitor is not regulated. This
facts deteriorates the DC/DC converter efficiency.
Due to the same fact, the operation with universal line is not
adequate
However, for the universal line voltage range, a voltage
doubler with a mechanical switch can be implemented to allow
operation in this condition (this has not been explained here)
Factor Correction
226
Outline
Introduction
Class D
Very simple current shaping techniques for very low-cost
applications
Factor Correction
227
Objective: A new low-cost method to
control PFC in CCM
Power
Factor
Corrector
Line
Output
-
Voltage
Feedback-Loop
Current
Feedback-Loop
Previous methods:
Control based on an
analog multiplier
Voltage-Follower
Control
Very simple shaping (I)
Control circuitry
Factor Correction
228
DC/DC
converter
Types of control: control
based on an analog multiplier
Low-Pass
filter
In CCM
Perfect PF & THD
Low losses in
the transistor
Current sensor
Multiplier
More expensive
Very simple shaping (II)
Factor Correction
229
High Z
O

dc-to-dc
converter
Low-Pass
filter
No current sensor
No multiplier
Cheaper
Lower losses in the
diode
Only high-output-
impedance topologies
(converters in DCM)

Sometimes THD
Higher total losses
Types of control: Voltage-
Follower Control
Very simple shaping (III)
Factor Correction
230
Comparing semiconductor currents
for both control methods (I)
Very simple shaping (IV)
Example: battery charger based on a Flyback
V
input
: 85-265 Vac V
Output
: 10-14 V I
Output
: 3-10 A
0
50
i
diode

time
66.27 A
time
0
50
100
i
diode

109.98 A
0
2
4
i
transistor

time
4.36 A
CCM
L
m
= 760 H
0
10
20
i
transistor

time
14.66 A
DCM
L
m
= 28 H
Factor Correction
231
Comparing semiconductor currents
for both control methods (II)
Very simple shaping (V)
0
2
4
i
transistor

time
CCM (L
m
= 760 H, E42/17/12)
0
10
20
i
transistor

time
DCM (L
m
= 28 H, E30/15/13) )
i
transistor RMS
= 2.16 A
i
transistor RMS
= 3.55 A
Losses in the transistor operating in DCM are
3.55
2
/ 2.16
2
= 2.7 times as high as in CCM
Operation in CCM is desirable from
the point of view of efficiency
Factor Correction
232
Comparing controllers for both
control methods
Very simple shaping (VI)
Operation in DCM is desirable from the
point of view of the controller cost
Controller cost:
UC3854A 5.3
UC3854B 8.2
Controller cost:
UC3843 0.5
UC3525 1.1
DC/DC
converter
Low-Pass
filter
Multiplier control (MC)
DC/DC
converter
in DCM
Low-Pass
filter
Voltage-Follower Control (VFC)
Factor Correction
233
DC/DC
converter
Can we have some of advantages of
both methods together? Conduction-
Angle Control
In CCM (as MC)
Low losses (as MC)
Low cost (as VFC)
Compliance with
regulations
Current sensor
No perfect sinusoidal
Low-Pass
filter
Very
cheap
circuit
Very simple shaping (VII)
Factor Correction
234
t
+
-
v
s

i
B

+
-
v
e

+

+
R
1
|
i
B
| R
1
+ -
i
B
|R
1
v
e
Principle of operation of
Conduction Angle Control (I)
v
s
Transistor in active mode: v
s
= v
e
- i
B
|R
1
Active mode
Transistor in saturation: v
s
= 0

Saturation
Very simple shaping (VIII)
Factor Correction
235
Very simple shaping (IX)
t
v
e
v
s1
i
B1
| R
1
i
B1
i
B2
| R
1
v
s2
i
B3
| R
1
v
s3
+
-
v
s

i
B

+
-
v
e

+

+
R
1
|
+ -
i
B
|R
1
< i
B2
< i
B3
This signal can be used as reference
for the current feedback loop
Principle of operation of
Conduction Angle Control (II)
(The same if it is controlled by light)
Factor Correction
236
Line
Output
DC/DC
converter in
CCM or DCM
Low-pass
Filter
Shaper
Implementation without galvanic isolation
Voltage feedback loop
Standard
controller
Current
feedback
loop
Very simple shaping (X)
Factor Correction
237
Line
R
1
R
2
Output
Standard
controller
Current
feedback-loop
Low-pass
filter
TL431
Voltage
feedback-loop
Q
1

To perform the
current reference
Example: Implementation based
on a boost converter
Very simple shaping (XI)
Factor Correction
238
Line
Output
DC/DC
converter in
CCM or DCM
Optocoupler
TL431
Low-pass
Filter
Voltage
feedback loop
Standard
controller
Current
feedback loop
Implementation without galvanic isolation
Very simple shaping (XII)
Factor Correction
239
Line
R
1

Output
R
2

Standard
controller
Current
feedback-loop
Low-pass
filter
TL431
Voltage
feedback-loop
Q
1

To perform the
current reference
Example: Implementation based
on a flyback converter
Very simple shaping (XIII)
Factor Correction
240
Filter
Power
stage
Output
Design procedure
@ Minimum line voltage and
maximum output power:
Current
feedback loop
R
1

R
2

R
1
, R
2
and the input-current
feedback loop must be designed
to supply the total power to the
load.
Voltage
feedback loop
Q
1

Q
1
will be held in cut-off by the
output-voltage feedback loop.
i
g

@ 190V AC, P
O max

i
g

@ Nominal line voltage and
maximum output power:
@ 230V AC, P
O max

i
g

|
D

|
D
=22.5
Very simple shaping (XIV)
Factor Correction
241
Line waveforms at full load
Voltage
190 V AC 230 V AC 265 V AC
Dead
angle
0 29.2 46.2
Voltage
85 V AC 110 V AC 130 V AC
Dead
angle
0 37.5 55.7
Voltage
85 V AC 110 V AC 230 V AC
Dead
angle
0 37.5 98.8
Design for the
American range
Design for the
Universal range
Design for the
European range*
* Also valid for Universal range if R
2
is properly changed
Very simple shaping (XV)
i
g

|
D

Factor Correction
242
i
g
(at full load)
i
g
(at full load)
i
g

i
g

i
g

i
g

Classical control method
Conduction Angle Control
Line waveforms for different loads
Decreasing loads
Remember: IEC 61000-3-2 should be complied only at full load!
Very simple shaping (XVI)
Factor Correction
243
DC/DC
converter
Very simple shaping (XVII)
Power
stage +
current
loop
Small-signal model of the Power Stage
(including the input-current feedback loop)
Low-Pass
filter
Output-voltage feedback loop
Objective: to have a model of the power stage (+ current loop)
to properly calculate the output-voltage feedback loop
Factor Correction
244
DC/DC
converter
V
gP
sinet
Power stage + current loop
v
O
i
O

Output
Input
Control
Averaging process
Very simple shaping (XVIII)
V
gP
2/t
v
Oav

C
B

V
gP
2/t
Power Power stage + current loop
v
Oav

i
Oav

i
gav
i
O

i
Oav
Factor Correction
245
C
B

V
gP
2/t
v
Oav

i
Oav

i
gav

Choosing the control variable
Control
i
C
i
b
|
i
C
i
led
CTR

i
Cact
= |i
b
i
Cact
= CTRi
led
we choose
i
Cact
i
Cact
Very simple shaping (XIX)
Factor Correction
246
Oav

i
O
t
i
Oav

I
Oav

i
Oav
Steady-state
Perturbation
Steady-state and perturbed variables
C
B

V
gP
2/t
v
Oav

i
Oav

i
gav

i
Cact
Very simple shaping (XX)
Factor Correction
247
Very simple shaping (XXI)
C
B

V
gP
2/t
v
Oav

i
Oav

i
gav

i
Cact
Input port Output port
)
2
cos
2 2
(sin
R R
R

v 2
i
C C C
1 S
eq gP
gav
|
|

=
From the theoretical study:
Value of i
gav

R
S
= current sensor gain
v
gP
= line voltage (peak value)
2 1
2 1
eq
R R
R R
R
+
=
where:
)
v
i R
cos( a 2
gP
Cact 1
D C
= | t = |
Factor Correction
248
Very simple shaping (XXII)
After perturbing i
gav

Input port
gav

(G
gv
)
-1

G
gC
Cact

Power Power stage
+ current loop
)
2
cos
2 2
(sin
R R
R

v 2
i
C C C
1 S
eq gP
gav
|
|

=
V
gP
2/
t
i
gav

Power Power stage
+ current loop
i
Cact
Input port
Small-signal circuit for the input port
gP gv Cact gC gav
v G i
G i
+ =
S
C eq
gC
R
R
G
t
u
=
2
sin
R R
R 2
G
C
S 1
eq
gv
u
=
where:
Factor Correction
249
Very simple shaping (XXIII)
C
B

V
gP
2/t
v
Oav

i
Oav

i
gav

i
Cact
Input port Output port
From the theoretical study:
Value of i
Oav

v
Oav
= output voltage
where:
) sin (
R R v 2
R
2
v
i
C C
1 S Oav
eq gP
Oav
| |

=
Factor Correction
250
Very simple shaping (XXIV)
After perturbing i
Oav

Small-signal circuit for the output port (I)
) sin (
R R v 2
R
2
v
i
C C
1 S Oav
eq gP
Oav
| |

=
Power Power stage
+ current loop
C
B

v
Oav

i
Oav

i
Cact
Output port
Oav OV gP Og Cact OC Oav
v G v G i
G i
+ + =
where:
2
cos 1
cos 1
R V
R V
G
C
2
C
S Oav
eq gP
OC
u
=
C
1 S Oav
eq gP
gP
Oav
Og
sin
R R V
R V
V
I 2
G u
t
=
O Oav
Oav
OV
R
1
V
I
G = =
Factor Correction
251
Very simple shaping (XXV)
Small-signal circuit for the output port (II)
Power Power stage
+ current loop
C
B

v
Oav

i
Oav

i
Cact
Output port
C
B

Oav

G
OC

Cact

-(G
Ov
)
-1

G
Og

v
gP

^
+
-
v
Oav
^
After perturbing i
Oav

Factor Correction
252
Very simple shaping (XXVI)
Input port
Output port
gav

(G
gv
)
-1

G
gC
Cact

C
B

Oav

G
OC

Cact

-(G
Ov
)
-1

G
Og

v
gP

^
+
-
v
Oav
^

Cact
Small-signal circuit for both
input and output ports
The same structure as in the case of the previous
control methods
First-order transfer functions
Different value for the parameters
Factor Correction
253
Very simple shaping (XXVII)
Transfer function between line
voltage and output voltage
C
B

+
-
v
Oav
^
G
Og
v
gP

^
R
O

i
Oav

^
G
OC
Cact

load O
load O
B
load O
load O
Og
gP
Oav
vOvg
r R
r R
C s 1
r R
r R
G
v
v
) s ( G
+
+
+
= =
First-order transfer function
where:
R
O
=V
O
/I
O
r
load
= dynamic load
Factor Correction
254
Very simple shaping (XXVIII)
Transfer function between
control and output voltage
C
B

+
-
v
Oav
^
G
Og
v
gP

^ R
O

i
Oav

^
G
OC
Cact

load O
load O
B
load O
load O
OC
Cact
Oav
vOiC
r R
r R
C s 1
r R
r R
G
i
v
) s ( G
+
+
+
= =
Also, first-order transfer function
Factor Correction
255
Very simple shaping (XXIX)
Variation of transfer function between control
and output voltage with the line voltage (I)
load O
load O
B
load O
load O
OC
Cact
Oav
vOiC
r R
r R
C s 1
r R
r R
G
i
v
) s ( G
+
+
+
= =
Slight variation of G
OC
when V
gP
changes
where:
)
V
I R
cos( a 2
gP
Cact 1
C
= u
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0
5
10
V
gP
/V
gPmin

G
OC

2
cos 1
cos 1
R V
R V
G
C 2
C
S Oav
eq gP
OC
u
=
being:
Factor Correction
256
Very simple shaping (XXX)
Variation of transfer function between control
and output voltage with the line voltage (II)
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0
5
10
V
gP
/V
gPmin

G
OC

Control based
on a multiplier
Conduction
Angle Control
Comparing these results with the ones
obtained using control based on a multiplier
G
OC
undergoes a lower
variation in the case of the
Conduction Angle Control.
This fact simplifies the
design of the output-voltage
feedback loop.
Factor Correction
257
Line
R
1
Output
R
2
Low-pass
filter
TL431
MCT2
Prototype for experimental results
(based on a Flyback converter)
Very simple shaping (XXXI)
P
O
: 80 W
V
O
: 12 V
V
g
: 190-
265 V AC
Standard
controller
UC 3825
Factor Correction
258
From the
line-rectifier output
UC 3825s
error amplifier
To the UC 3825s
comparator
+ 5.1 V
+ 5.1 V
MCT2
Current sensor
1 : 50
220
10 K 12 nF
47 K
47 K
3.7 M
820 pF
R
1

R
2

820 pF
33 nF
R
1
= 1M
R
2
= 10 K
Bias
1 K
Implementation of the input-current feedback
loop based on a standard controller for
Switching Mode Power Supplies
Very simple shaping (XXXII)
Factor Correction
259
R
1

R
2

+
-
v
R2

+
-
v
sensor

@ 190 V AC, full load
1 V/div
v
R2

v
sensor

1 V/div
v
R2

v
sensor

1 V/div
v
R2

v
sensor

Very simple shaping (XXXIII)
|
D
increases
when V
gP

increases
|
D

|
D

Factor Correction
260
1 V/div
v
R2

v
sensor

0.5 V/div
@ 230 V AC, 12 V, 2 A
v
R2

v
sensor

0.2 V/div
v
R2

v
sensor

@ 230 V AC, 12 V, 0.85 A
R
1

R
2

+
-
v
R2

+
-
v
sensor

Very simple shaping (XXXIV)
|
D
increases
when I
O

decreases
|
D

|
D

|
D

Factor Correction
261
@ 190 V AC,
full load
0.33 A/div
@ 230 V AC,
full load
0.33 A/div
@ 265 VAC,
full load
0.33 A/div
0.167 A/div
0.167 A/div 0.167 A/div
@ 190 V AC,
12 V, 2 A
@ 230 V AC,
12 V, 2 A
@ 265 V AC,
12 V, 2 A
Line current
Experimental results (III)
Very simple shaping (XXXV)
Factor Correction
262
0
0.2
0.4
Class D limits
Measured
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
nth harmonics
Line current (A)
0
1
2
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
nth harmonics
Class A limits
Measured
Line current (A)
@ 230 V AC, 102.8 W
THD = 24.5%
PF = 0.968
Harmonic content
0.33 A/div
@ 230 V AC,
full load
Experimental results (IV)
Very simple shaping (XXXVI)
Factor Correction
263
[Volts]
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
t [s]
Cact

(Pspice simulation)
v
O
(t)-V
Oav

i
Cact
i
led
CTR

i
Cact
= CTRi
led

(small-signal model)
v
Oav
(t)
^
Simulated
Experimental results (V)
Very simple shaping (XXXVII)
Verifying the small-signal model (I)
Factor Correction
264
Experimental results (VI)
Very simple shaping (XXXVIII)
Verifying the small-signal model (II)
v
gP

^
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
t [s]
[Volts]
v
gP

^
(Pspice simulation)
v
O
(t)-V
Oav

Simulated
(small-signal model)
v
Oav
(t)
^
Factor Correction
265
Experimental results (VII)
Very simple shaping (XXXIX)
Verifying the small-signal
model (III)
Experimental
i
C
i
led
CTR

i
Cact
= CTRi
led

Measured
Output voltage
Cact

Average small-
signal model
Factor Correction
266
Experimental results (VIII)
Very simple shaping (XL)
Verifying the small-signal
model (IV)
Experimental
Measured Output
voltage
v
gP

^
Average small-
signal model
v
gP

^
Factor Correction
267
Conclusions of the use of very simple
current shaping techniques for very
low-cost applications (I)
Very simple shaping (XLI)
The Conduction Angle Control method can be
used in CCM (as the control based on a
multiplier)
Low losses (as the control based on a multiplier)
Low cost controller (as Voltage Follower
Control)
Current sensor and current feedback loop
No perfect sinusoidal, but compliance with IEC
61000-3-2 is achieved
Factor Correction
268
Very simple shaping (XLII)
An average small-signal model of the PFC controlled by
Conduction Angle has been obtained
The transfer functions between control and output voltage
and between input voltage and output voltage have also been
obtained. As in the case of other control methods, they are first-
order transfer functions
However, the transfer function between control and output
voltage is almost constant when the value of the AC input
voltage varies. This fact simplifies the output-voltage feedback
loop
Conclusions of the use of very simple
current shaping techniques for very
low-cost applications (II)

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11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power

The quantities with hats

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