WORKSHOP TECHNOLOGY (JJ 204) RAPID PROTOTYPING

MUHAMMAD ASYRAF BIN RAZALI 06DKM11F1084 MUHAMAD TAUFIQ BIN RESDI 06DKM11F1083 AFIQ ASYRAF BIN MANSOR 06DKM11F1072

INTRODUCTION
Rap i d P r o totyping ( RP ) can b e d ef i ned as a g r o u p o f t ech niques u s ed t o q u i ckly f ab r icate a s cal e mo d el o f a p ar t o r as s emb ly u s i n g t h r ee -dimensional co mp uter ai d ed d es i gn ( CAD) d at a. W h at i s co mmo n l y co n s idered t o b e t h e f i r s t RP t ech nique, S t er eolithography, w as d ev eloped b y 3 D S ys t ems o f Val en cia, CA , U S A . Th e co mp an y w as f o u nded i n 1 9 8 6, an d s i n ce t h en , a n u mb er o f d i ffer ent RP t ech niques h av e b eco me av ai lable. Rap i d P r o totyping h as al s o b een r ef er red t o as s o l id f r ee - form man u f acturing, co mp u ter au t omated man u f acturing, an d l ayer ed man u f acturing. RP h as o b v ious u s e as a v eh i cle f o r v i s ualization. I n ad d i tion, RP mo d el s can b e u s ed f o r t es t ing, s u ch as w h en an ai r f oil s h ap e i s p u t i n to a w i n d t u n nel. RP mo d el s can b e u s ed t o cr eat e mal e mo d el s f o r t o o ling, s u ch as s i l icone r u b ber mo l d s an d i n v estment cas t s . I n s o me cas es , t h e RP p ar t can b e t h e f i n al p ar t , b u t t yp i cally t h e RP mat er i al i s n o t s t r ong o r accu r ate en o u gh. W h en t h e RP mat er i al i s s u i t able, h i g hly co n v oluted s h ap es ( i n cluding p ar t s n es t ed w i t h in p ar t s ) can b e p r o duced b ecau s e o f t h e n at ure o f RP. Th er e i s a mu l t itude o f ex p erimental RP met h o dologies ei t h er i n d ev elopment o r u s ed b y s mal l g r o ups o f i n d ividuals . Th i s s ect ion w i l l f o cu s o n RP t ech niques t h at ar e cu r r ently co mmer ci ally av ai lable, i n cluding S t er eolithography ( S LA ) , S el ective Las er S i n tering ( S LS ) , Lami n ated O b j ect M an u f acturing ( LOM) , F u s ed D ep o s ition M o d eling ( F D M ) , S o l id G r o u nd Cu r i ng ( S G C) , an d I n k J et p r i nting t ech niques

HISTORY OF RAPID PROTOTYPING

Sixties: The first rapid prototyping techniques became accessible in the later eighties and they were used for production of prototype and model parts. The history of rapid prototyping can be traced to the late sixties, when an engineering professor, Herbert Voelcker, questioned himself about the possibilities of doing interesting things with the computer controlled and automatic machine tools. These machine tools had just started to appear on the factory floors then. Voelcker was trying to find a way in which the automated machine tools could be programmed by using the output of a design program of a computer. Seventies: Voelcker developed the basic tools of mathematics that clearly describe the three dimensional aspects and resulted in the earliest theories of algorithmic and mathematical theories for solid modeling. These theories form the basis of modern computer programs that are used for designing almost all things mechanical, ranging from the smallest toy car to the tallest skyscraper. Volecker s theories changed the designing methods in the seventies, but, the old methods for designing were still very much in use. The old method involved either a machinist or machine tool controlled by a computer. The metal hunk was cut away and the needed part remained as per requirements.

 Eighties: However, in 1987, Carl Deckard, a researcher form the University of Texas, came up with a good revolutionary idea. He pioneered the layer based manufacturing, wherein he thought of building up the model layer by layer. He printed 3D models by utilizing laser light for fusing metal powder in solid prototypes, single layer at a time. Deckard developed this idea into a technique called Selective Laser Sintering. The results of this technique were extremely promising. The history of rapid prototyping is quite new and recent. However, as this technique of rapid prototyping has such wide ranging scope and applications with amazing results, it has grown by leaps and bounds.

Voelcker s and Deckards stunning findings, innovations and researches have given extreme impetus to this significant new industry known as rapid prototyping or free form fabrication. It has revolutionized the designing and manufacturing processes.

 Though, there are many references of people pioneering the rapid prototyping technology, the industry gives recognition to Charles Hull for the patent of Apparatus for Production of 3D Objects by Stereolithography. Charles Hull is recognized by the industry as the father of rapid prototyping. Present-day Rapid Prototyping: Today, the computer engineer has to simply sketch the ideas on the computer screen with the help of a design program that is computer aided. Computer aided designing allows to make modification as required and you can create a physical prototype that is a precise and proper 3D object.

ADVANTAGES OF RAPID- PROTOTYPING

1) Reduction in project cost and risk. 2) Can be used in different industries. 3) Easily the errors in previous design can be detected and errors can be rectified. 4) Only upon the complete satisfaction the complete product is designed. Factors like manufacturability, robustness and functionality of design are checked before sending it for production. 5) Greater visualization capabilities are improved right from the first stage if designing. This helps the user in knowing how the final product will look like. 6) All the designing flaws can be detected easily before the manufacturing of the product starts. 7) Manufacturer, designer and user can discuss the product and work forward to get the best product. This helps to give the user higher output product.

THREE MAJOR GROUP PROCESS OF RAPID PROTOTYPING

While there are many ways in which one can classify the numerous RP systems in the market, one of the better ways is to classify RP systems broadly by the initial form of its material, i.e. the material that the prototype or part is built with. In this manner, all RP systems can be easily categorized into (1) liquid -based (2) solid-based and (3) powderbased.

1 .LIQUID-BASED
Liquid-based RP systems have the initial form of its material in liquid state. Through a process commonly known as curing, the liquid is converted into the solid state

THE FOLLOWING RP SYSTEMS FALL INTO THIS CATEGORY:

3D Systems Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA) Cubitals Solid Ground Curing (SGC) Sonys Solid Creation System (SCS) CMETs Solid Object Ultraviolet -Laser Printer (SOUP) Autostrades E-Darts Teijin Seikis Soliform System Meikos Rapid Prototyping System for the Jewelry Industry Denkens SLP Mitsuis COLAMM Fockele & Schwarzes LMS Light Sculpting Aaroflex Rapid Freeze Two Laser Beams Microfabrication

2 .SOLID-BASED
Except for powder, solid -based RP systems are meant to encompass all forms of material in the solid state. In this context, the solid form can include the shape in the form of a wire, a roll, laminates and pellets.

THE FOLLOWING RP SYSTEMS FALL INTO THIS DEFINITION:

Cubic Technologies Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) Stratasys Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) Kira Corporations Paper Lamination Technology (PLT) 3D Systems Multi-Jet Modeling System (MJM) Solidscapes ModelMaker and PatternMaster Beijing Yinhuas Slicing Solid Manufacturing (SSM), Melted Extrusion Modeling (MEM) and Multi -Functional RPM Systems(M-RPM) CAM-LEMs CL 100 Ennex Corporations Offset Fabbers

3. POWDER-BASED
In a strict sense, powder is by -and-large in the solid state. However, it is intentionally created as a category outside the solid -based RP systems to mean powder in grain -like form.

THE FOLLOWING RP SYSTEMS FALL INTO THIS DEFINITION:

3D Systemss Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) EOSs EOSINT Systems Z Corporations Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP) Optomecs Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) Soligens Direct Shell Production Casting (DSPC) Fraunhofer s Multiphase Jet Solidification (MJS) Acrams Electron Beam Melting (EBM) Aeromet Corporations Lasform Technology Precision Optical Manufacturings Direct Metal Deposition(DMDTM) Generis RP Systems (GS) Therics Inc.s Theriform Technology Extrude Hones PrometalTM 3D Printing Process

SUBTRACTIVE PROCESS
SRP (Subtractive rapid prototyping) is another process of transforming 3D digital model content into physical objects. Subtractive rapid prototyping is a low cost prototyping and parts manufacturing process. The digital model is recreated and transformed into real world physical world that can be held in the hand. Subtractive rapid prototyping is a removal process; the process CNC machining from a raw stock block of material.

ADDITIVE PROCESSES
Additive rapid prototyping operations all build parts in layer. All of the processes describe in this section build part layer by layer. The main difference between the various processes lies in the approach taken to produce the invidual slice. Rapid prototyping, in this method, requires an input in the setup from the computer files and in the initiation of the production processes. Following this stage, the machines generally operates unattended and provides a rough part after a few hours. In order to complete the rapid prototyping process, the part is then put through a series of finishing manual operation(such as sanding and painting). It should be recognized that setup and finishing operations are very labor-intensive and that the production time is only a part of the time required to obtain a prototype. Generally additive process are much faster than subtractive processes; they can take as little as from a few to few hours to produce a part.

VIRTUAL PROTOTYPING
Virtual prototyping, a totally software form of prototyping, uses advanced graphics and virtual -reality environments to allow designers to examine a part. This technology is used by a CAD packages to render a part, so that the designer can observe and evaluate the part as it is drawn. The simplest forms of such systems use complex software and three-dimensional graphics routines to allow viewers to change the view of parts on a computer screen. More complicated versions will use virtual-reality headgear and gloves with appropriate sensors, to let the user observe a computer -generated prototype of the desired part in a completely virtual enviroment.

FUSED DEPOSITION MODELIN

In this technique, filaments of heated thermoplastic are extruded from a tip that moves in the x -y plane. Like a baker decorating a cake, the controlled extrusion head deposits very thin beads of material onto the build platform to form the first layer. The platform is maintained at a lower temperature, so that the thermoplastic quickly hardens. After the platform lowers, the extrusion head deposits a second layer upon the first. Supports are built along the way, fastened to the part either with a second, weaker material or with a perforated junction. Stratasys, of Eden Prairie, MN makes a variety of FDM machines ranging from fast concept modelers to slower, high -precision machines. Materials include ABS (standard and medical grade), elastomer (96 durometer), polycarbonate, polyphenolsulfone, and investment casting wax.

 Patented in 1986, stereolithography started the rapid prototyping revolution. The technique builds three -dimensional models from liquid photosensitive polymers that solidify when exposed to ultraviolet light. As shown in the figure below, the model is built upon a platform situated just below the surface in a vat of liquid epoxy or acrylate resin. A low -power highly focused UV laser traces out the first layer, solidifying the models cross section while leaving excess areas liquid.

 Developed by Carl Deckard for his master s thesis at the University of Texas, selective laser sintering was patented in 1989. The technique, shown in Figure 3, uses a laser beam to selectively fuse powdered materials, such as nylon, elastomer, and metal, into a solid object. Parts are built upon a platform which sits just below the surface in a bin of the heat -fusable powder. A laser traces the pattern of the first layer, sintering it together. The platform is lowered by the height of the next layer and powder is reapplied. This process continues until the part is complete. Excess powder in each layer helps to support the part during the build. SLS machines are produced by DTM of Austin, TX.

BALLISTIC-PARTICLE MANUFACTURING
BPM employs a technology called digital Microsynthesis. 1. In the first step of the process, molten plastic is fed to a piezoelectic jetting mechanims, almost like those of inkjet printers, 2. Next a multi-axis controlled NC(numerical control) system shoots tiny dropets of material onto the target, using the jetting mechanism. 3. Last, small droplets freeze upon contact with the surface, forming the surface particle by particle.

LAMINATED OBJECT MANUFACTURING

In this technique, developed by Helisys of Torrance, CA, layers of adhesive-coated sheet material are bonded together to form a prototype. The original material consists of paper laminated with heat -activated glue and rolled up on spools. As shown in the figure below, a feeder/collector mechanism advances the sheet over the build platform, where a base has been constructed from paper and double -sided foam tape. Next, a heated roller applies pressure to bond the paper to the base. A focused laser cuts the outline of the first layer into the paper and then cross -hatches the excess area (the negative space in the prototype). Cross -hatching breaks up the extra material, making it easier to remove during post -processing. During the build, the excess material provides excellent support for overhangs and thin -walled sections. After the first layer is cut, the platform lowers out of the way and fresh material is advanced. The platform rises to slightly below the previous height, the roller bonds the second layer to the first, and the laser cuts the second layer. This process is repeated as needed to build the part, which will have a wood -like texture. Because the models are made of paper, they must be sealed and finished with paint or varnish to prevent moisture damage.

RAPID TOOLING
A much-anticipated application of rapid prototyping is rapid tooling, the automatic fabrication of production quality machine tools. Tooling is one of the slowest and most expensive steps in the manufacturing process, because of the extremely high quality required. Tools often have complex geometries, yet must be dimensionally accurate to within a hundredth of a millimeter. In addition, tools must be hard, wear -resistant, and have very low surface roughness (about 0.5 micrometers root mean square). To meet these requirements, molds and dies are traditionally made by CNC-machining, electro-discharge machining, or by hand. All are expensive and time consuming, so manufacturers would like to incorporate rapid prototyping techniques to speed the process. Peter Hilton, president of Technology Strategy Consulting in Concord, MA, believes that "tooling costs and development times can be reduced by 75 percent or more" by using rapid tooling and related technologies. 16 Rapid tooling can be divided into two

INDIRECT TOOLING
Most rapid tooling today is indirect: RP parts are used as patterns for making molds and dies. RP models can be indirectly used in a number of manufacturing processes: Vacuum Casting: In the simplest and oldest rapid tooling technique, a RP positive pattern is suspended in a vat of liquid silicone or room temperature vulcanizing (RTV) rubber. When the rubber hardens, it is cut into two halves and the RP pattern is removed. The resulting rubber mold can be used to cast up to 20 polyurethane replicas of the original RP pattern. A more useful variant, known as the Keltool powder m e t a l s i n t e r i n g p r o c e s s , u s e s t h e r u b b e r m o l d s t o p r o d u c e m e t a l t o o l s . 17 D e v e l o p e d b y 3 M a n d n o w o w n e d by 3D Systems, the Keltool process involves filling the rubber molds with powdered tool steel and epoxy binder. When the binder cures, the "green" metal tool is removed from the rubber mold and then sintered. At this stage the metal is only 70% dense, so it is infiltrated with copper to bring it close to its theoretical maximum density. The tools have fairly good accuracy, but their size is limited to under 25 centimeters. Sand Casting: A RP model is used as the positive pattern around which the sand mold is built. LOM models, which resemble the wooden models traditionally used for this purpose, are often used. If sealed and finished, a LOM pattern can produce about 100 sand molds. Investment Casting: Some RP prototypes can be used as investment casting patterns. The pattern must not expand when heated, or it will crack the ceramic shell during autoclaving. Both Stratasys and Cubital make investment casting wax for their machines. Paper LOM prototypes may also be used, as they are dimensionally stable with temperature. The paper shells burn out, leaving some ash to be removed. To counter thermal expansion in stereolithography parts, 3D Systems introduced QuickCast, a build style featuring a solid outer skin and mostly hollow inner structure. The part collapses inward when heated. Likewise, DTM sells Trueform polymer, a porous substance that expands little with temperature rise, for use in its SLS machines. Injection molding: CEMCOM Research Associates, Inc. has developed the NCC Tooling System to make m e t a l / c e r a m i c c o m p o s i t e m o l d s f o r t h e i n j e c t i o n m o l d i n g o f p l a s t i c s . 18 F i r s t , a s t e r e o l i t h o g r a p h y m a c h i n e is used to make a match -plate positive pattern of the desired molding. To form the mold, the SLA pattern is plated with nickel, which is then reinforced with a stiff ceramic material. The two mold halves are separated to remove the pattern, leaving a matched die set that can produce tens of thousands of injection moldings.

DIRECT TOOLING
To directly make hard tooling from CAD data is the Holy Grail of rapid tooling. Realization of this objective is still several years away, but some strong strides are being made: RapidTool: A DTM process that selectively sinters polymer -coated steel pellets together to produce a metal mold. The mold is then placed in a furnace where the polymer binder is burned off and the part is infiltrated with copper (as in the Keltool process). The resulting mold can produce up to 50,000 injection moldings. In 1996 Rubbermaid produced 30,000 plastic desk organizers from a SLS -built mold. This was the first widely sold c o n s u m e r p r o d u c t t o b e p r o d u c e d f r o m d i r e c t r a p i d t o o l i n g . 19 E x t r u d e H o n e , i n I r w i n P A , w i l l s o o n s e l l a m a c h i n e , b a s e d o n M I T s 3 D P r i n t i n g p r o c e s s , t h a t p r o d u c e s b r o n z e - i n f i l t r a t e d P M t o o l s a n d p r o d u c t s . 20 Laser-Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) is a process developed at Sandia National Laboratories and Stanford University that c a n c r e a t e m e t a l t o o l s f r o m C A D d a t a . 21 M a t e r i a l s i n c l u d e 3 1 6 s t a i n l e s s s t e e l , I n c o n e l 6 2 5 , H 1 3 t o o l s t e e l , t u n g s t e n , a n d titanium carbide cermets. A laser beam melts the top layer of the part in areas where material is to be added. Powder metal is injected into the molten pool, which then solidifies. Layer after layer is added until the part is complete. Unlike traditional powder metal processing, LENS produces fully dense parts, since the metal is melted, not merely sintered. The resulting parts have exceptional mechanical properties, but the process currently works only for parts with simple, uniform cross sections. The system has been commercialized by MTS corporation Direct AIM (ACES Injection Molding): A technique from 3D Systems in which stereolithography-produced cores are used with traditional metal molds for injection m o l d i n g o f h i g h a n d l o w d e n s i t y p o l y e t h y l e n e , p o l y s t y r e n e , p o l y p r o p y l e n e a n d A B S p l a s t i c . 22 V e r y g o o d a c c u r a c y i s achieved for fewer than 200 moldings. Long cycle times (~ five minutes) are required to allow the molding to cool enough that it will not stick to the SLA core. In another variation, cores are made from thin SLA shells filled with epoxy and aluminum shot. Aluminums high conductivity helps the molding cool faster, thus shortening cycle time. The outer surface can also be plated with metal to improve wear resistance. Production runs of 1000 -5000 moldings are envisioned to make the process economically viable. LOMComposite: Helysis and the University of Dayton are working to develop ceramic composite materials for Laminated Object Manufacturing. LOMComposite parts would be very strong and durable, and could be used as tooling in a variety of manufacturing processes. Sand Molding: At least two RP techniques can construct sand molds directly from CAD data. DTM sells sand -like material that can be sintered into molds. Soligen (uses 3DP to produce ceramic molds and cores for investment casting, (Direct Shell Production Casting).

RAPID MANUFACTURING
A n a t u r a l e x t e n s i o n o f R P i s r a p i d ma n u f a c t u r i ng ( R M ) , t h e a u t o ma t e d p r o d uc t i on o f s a l a b l e p r o d u c t s d i r e c t ly f r o m C A D d a t a . C u r r e n tl y o n l y a f e w f i n a l p r o d u c t s a r e p r o d uc e d b y R P ma c h i n e s , b u t t h e n u mb e r w i l l i n c r e a s e a s me t a l s a n d o t h e r ma t e r i a l s b e c o me mo r e w i d e l y a v a i l a b l e . R M w i l l n e v e r c o mp l e t e l y r e p l a c e o t h e r ma n u f a c t u r i n g t e c h n iq u e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n l a rg e p r o d u c t i o n r u n s w h e r e ma s s - p r o d uc t i on i s mo r e e c o n o mi c a l . F o r s h o r t p r o d uc t i o n r u n s , h o w e v e r, R M i s mu c h c h e a p e r, s i n c e i t d o e s n o t r e q u i r e t o o l i n g . R M i s a l s o i d e a l f o r p r o d u c i ng c u s t o m p a r t s t a i l o r e d t o t h e u s e r s e x a c t s p e c i f i c a t i o ns . A U n i v e r s i t y o f D e l a w a r e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t u s e s a d i g i t iz e d 3 - D mo d e l o f a p e r s o n s h e a d t o c o n s t r u c t a c u s t o m - f i tt e d h e l me t . 2 3 N A S A i s e x p e r i me n t i n g w i t h u s i n g R P ma c h i n e s t o p r o d uc e s p a c e s u i t g l o v e s f i t t e d t o e a c h a s t r o n a u t s h a n d s . 2 4 F r o m t a i l o r e d g o l f c l u b g r i p s t o c u s t o m d i n n e r wa r e , t h e p o s s i b i li t i e s a r e endless. T h e o t h e r ma j o r u s e o f R M i s f o r p r o d u c t s t h a t s i mp l y c a n n o t b e ma d e b y s u b t r a c t i v e ( ma c h i n i ng , g r i n d i n g) o r c o mp r e s s i v e ( f o rg i ng , e t c . ) p r o c e s s e s . T h i s i n c l ud e s o b j e c t s w i t h c o mp l e x f e a t u r e s , i n t e r n a l v o i d s , a n d l a ye r e d s t r u c t u r e s . S p e c i f i c S u r f a c e o f F r a n k l i n , M A u s e s R P t o ma n u f a c t u r e c o mp l i c a t e d c e r a mi c f i l t e r s t h a t h a v e e i g h t t i me s t h e i n t e r i o r s u r f a c e a r e a o f o l d e r t yp e s . T h e f i l t e r s r e mo v e p a r t i c l e s f r o m t h e g a s e mi s s i o n s o f c o a l - f i r e d p o w e r p l a n t s . 2 5 T h e r i c s , I n c . o f N Y C i s u s i n g R P s l a ye r e d b u i l d s t yl e t o d e v e l op " p i l l s t h a t r e l e a s e me a s u r e d d r u g d o s e s a t s p e c i f i e d t i me s d u r i n g t h e d a y" a n d o t h e r me d i c a l p r o d uc t s .

BASIC PROCESS
Although several rapid prototyping techniques exist, all employ the same basic five-step process. The steps are: Create a CAD model of the design Convert the CAD model to STL format Slice the STL file into thin cross -sectional layers Construct the model one layer atop another Clean and finish the model CAD Model Creation: First, the object to be built is modeled using a Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software package. Solid modelers, such as Pro/ENGINEER, tend to represent 3 -D objects more accurately than wire -frame modelers such as AutoCAD, and will therefore yield better results. The designer can use a pre-existing CAD file or may wish to create one expressly for prototyping purposes. This process is identical for all of the RP build techniques .

 C o n v e r s i o n t o S T L F o r ma t : T h e v a r i o u s C A D p a c k a g e s u s e a n u mb e r o f d i ff e r e n t a l g o r i t hms t o r e p r e s e n t s o l i d o b j e c t s . To e s t a b l i s h c o n s i s t e n c y, t h e S T L ( s t e r e o l i t ho g r a p hy, t h e f i r s t R P t e c h n i q u e ) f o r ma t h a s b e e n a d o p t e d a s t h e s t a n d a r d o f t h e r a p i d p r o t o t yp i n g i n d u s t r y. T h e s e c o n d s t e p , t h e r e f o r e , i s t o c o n v e r t t h e C A D f i l e i n t o S T L f o r ma t . T h i s f o r ma t r e p r e s e n ts a t h r e e - d i me n s i o na l s u r f a c e a s a n a s s e mb l y o f p l a n a r t r i a n g l e s , " l i k e t h e f a c e t s o f a c u t j e w e l . " 6T h e f i l e c o n t a i n s t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e v e r t i c e s a n d t h e d i r e c t io n o f t h e o u t wa r d n o r ma l o f e a c h t r i a n g l e . B e c a u s e S T L f i l e s u s e p l a n a r e l e me n t s , t h e y c a n n o t r e p r e s e n t c u r v e d s u r f a c e s e x a c t l y. I n c r e a s i n g t h e n u mb e r o f t r i a n g l e s i mp r o v e s t h e a p p r o xi ma t i on , b u t a t t h e c o s t o f b i g g e r f i l e s i z e . L a rg e , c o mp l i c a t e d f i l e s r e q u i r e mo r e t i me t o p r e - p r o c e s s a n d b u i l d , s o t h e d e s i g n e r mu s t b a l a n c e a c c u r a c y w i t h ma n a g e a b l i li t y t o p r o d u c e a u s e f u l S T L f i l e . S i n c e t h e . s t l f o r ma t i s u n i v e r s a l , t h i s p r o c e s s i s i d e n t i c a l f o r a l l o f t h e R P b u i l d t e c h n iq u e s . S l i c e t h e S T L F i l e : I n t h e t h i r d s t e p , a p r e - p r oc e s s i n g p r o g r a m p r e p a r e s t h e S T L f i l e t o b e b u i l t. S e v e r a l p r o g r a ms a r e a v a i l a b l e , a n d mo s t a l l o w t h e u s e r t o a d j u s t t h e s i z e , l o c a t io n a n d o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e mo d e l . B u i l d o r i e n ta t i on i s i mp o r t a n t f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . F i r s t , p r o p e r t i e s o f r a p i d p r o t o t yp e s v a r y f r o m o n e c o o r d i n a t e d i r e c t i on t o a n o t h e r. F o r e x a mp l e , p r o t o t yp e s a r e u s u a l l y w e a k e r a n d l e s s a c c u r a t e i n t h e z ( v e r t i c a l ) d i r e c t i o n t h a n i n t h e x - y p l a n e . I n a d d i t i o n , p a r t o r i e n t a t i o n p a r t i a l ly d e t e r mi n e s t h e a mo u n t o f t i me r e q u i r e d t o b u i l d t h e mo d e l . P l a c i n g t h e s h o r t e s t d i me n s i o n i n t h e z d i r e c t io n r e d u c e s t h e n u mb e r o f l a ye r s , t h e r e b y s h o r t e n in g b u i l d t i me . T h e p r e - p r o c e s s i n g s o f t w a r e s l i c e s t h e S T L mo d e l i n t o a n u mb e r o f l a ye r s f r o m 0 . 0 1 mm t o 0 . 7 mm t h i c k , d e p e n d in g o n t h e b u i l d t e c h n i q u e . T h e p r o g r a m ma y a l s o g e n e r a t e a n a u x i li a r y s t r u c t u r e t o s u p p o r t t h e mo d e l d u r i ng t h e b u i l d . S u p p o r ts a r e useful for delicate features such as overhangs, internal cavities, and thin -walled s e c t i o n s . E a c h P R ma c h i n e ma n u f a c t u r e r s u p p l i e s t h e i r o w n p r o p r i e t a r y p r e processing software.

Layer by Layer Construction: The fourth step is the actual construction of the part. Using one of several techniques (described in the next section) RP machines build one layer at a time from polymers, paper, or powdered metal. Most machines are fairly autonomous, needing little human intervention. Clean and Finish: The final step is post-processing. This involves removing the prototype from the machine and detaching any supports. Some photosensitive materials need to be fully cured before use. Prototypes may also require minor cleaning and surface treatment. Sanding, sealing, and/or painting the model will improve its appearance and durability.