Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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MIS
Information is Critical
The
information we have is not what we want, information we want is not the information we need, information we need is not available.
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The
The
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Information is a Resource
It is scarce It has a cost It has alternative uses There is an opportunity cost factor involved if one does not process information
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To ensure effective and efficient decision making leading to prosperity of the Organisation.
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What is MIS?
MIS
refers broadly to a computer-based system that provides managers with the tools for organizing, evaluating and efficiently running their departments.
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What is MIS?
Right Information To the right person At the right place At the right time In the right form At the right cost
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Management, Information
together
System
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System emphasizing a fair degree of integration and a holistic view; Information stressing on processed data in the context in which it is used by end users;
Management
focusing on the ultimate use of such information systems for managerial decision making.
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Why MIS?
Increased
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Precise development of strategies, planning, forecasting and monitoring Problem solving Decision-making Separate work from location
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Definition:
An
that
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Roles of IS in Business:
There
are three fundamental reasons for all business applications of information technology. They are found in the three vital roles that information system can perform for a business enterprise.
Support of its business processes and operations. Support of decision making by its employees and managers. Support of its strategies for competitive 9/18/2012 advantage. ITM 574 16
Trends in IS:
The business applications of information systems have expanded significantly over the years. Data Processing (1950s 1960s): Electronic data processing systems which includes transaction processing, record keeping, and traditional accounting applications. Management Reporting (1960s 1970s): Management information systems that include preparation of management reports of pre specified information to support decision making. Decision Support (1970s 1980s): Decision support systems include interactive ad hoc support of managerial decision making process. Strategic and End User Support (1980s 1990s):
End user computing systems: Direct computing support for end user productivity and work group collaboration. Executive information systems: Critical information for top management. Expert Systems: Knowledge based expert advice for end users. Strategic Information Systems: Strategic products and services for competitive advantage.
Internet based e-business and e-commerce systems: Web enabled 9/18/2012 enterprise and global e-business574 ITM operations and electronic commerce on 17 the internet, intranets, extranets, and other networks.
the applications of information systems that are implemented in todays business world can be classified in several different ways. Several types information systems can be classified as
Operations Support System Management Information Systems
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Information systems have always been needed to process data generated by and used in, business operations.
Produce a variety of information products for internal and external use. Do not emphasize producing the specific information products that can best be used by managers. The role of a business firms operations support system is to
efficiently process business transactions, control industrial processes, support enterprise communications and collaborations and update corporate databases.
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an important example of operations support system that record and process data resulting from business transactions.
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information systems applications focus on providing information and support for effective decision making by managers, they are called management support systems.
Providing information and support for decision making by all types of managers and business professionals is a complex task.
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provides information in the form of reports and displays to managers and many business professionals.
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give direct computer support to managers during the decision making process.
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provide critical information from a wide variety of internal and external sources easy to use touch screen terminals to instantly view text and groups display that highlights key areas of organizational and competitive performance.
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People Resources:
People
are an essential ingredient for the successful operation of all information system.
The people resources include end users and IS specialists.
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Hardware Resources:
The
concept of hardware resources include all physical devices and materials used in information processing.
Specifically, it includes not only machines, such as computers and other equipment, but also all data media, from sheets of paper to magnetic or optical disks.
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Software Resources:
The
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Data Resources:
Data
are more than raw materials of information system. The concept of data resources has been broadened by managers of information systems professionals. They realize that data constitute valuable organizational resources. Thus data is viewed as an important resource that must be managed effectively to benefit the end users in an organization.
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Network Resources:
Telecommunications
technologies and networks like the internet, intranet and extranet are essential to the successful electronic business and commerce operations of all types of organizations and their computer based information systems.
Telecommunications networks consist of computers, communications processors and other devices interconnected by communication media and controlled by communications software.
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IS Activities:
The
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Inputting:
Data about business transactions and other events must be captured and prepared for processing by the input activity.
Input typically takes the form of data entry activities such as recording and editing. End users typically enter data directly into a computer system, or record about transactions on some type of physical medium such as a paper form. This usually includes a variety of editing activities to ensure that they have recorded data correctly. Once recorded data may be transferred onto a machine readable medium such as a magnetic disk until needed for processing.
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Processing:
Data
are typically subjected to processing activities such as calculating, comparing, sorting, classifying and summarizing.
These activities organize, analyze, and manipulate data, thus converting them into information for end users. The quality of any data stored in an information system must also be maintained by a continual process of correcting and updating activities.
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Outputting:
Information
in various forms is transmitted to end users and make available to them in the output activity.
The goal of information system is the production of appropriate information products for end users.
Common
information products include messages, reports, forms and graphic images, which may be provided by video displays, audio responses, paper products and multimedia.
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Storing:
Storage
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Controlling:
An
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Maintenance
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Project Initiation
Usually
it is the manager outside the IS organisation who has a problem or sees an opportunity.
A formal planning process also may identify new systems that can help the organisation meet its objectives.
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System Analysis
System
analysis refers to the investigation of the existing situation. is a process that may take weeks, or months involving many activities. aims at providing a thorough understanding of existing organisations and its operations.
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It
It
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Determining Identification
Flow
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involved
The
The
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of Documents
Interviews
Performance
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Measurements
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Feasibility Studies
To
determine the probability of success of a proposed solution. May be conducted several times throughout SDLC To test whether the solution is achievable with given organisational resources and constraints.
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Technological Feasibility
Are
the performance requirements achievable utilizing current information technology? not, are they attainable through capabilities that will be available by the time the project finishes?
If
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Economical Feasibility
Are
the expected benefits greater than the costs? the organisation afford the costs in terms of spending and personal requirements?
Can
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Are
Organisational Factors
Is
the proposed system reasonably compactable with organisational culture, internal political considerations, and work rules. Are the skill levels to use the new system consistent with employees who will operate it.
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the new or automated process ethical to employees and customers? it meets all regulatory requirements?
Does
Are
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Logical Design
The
emphasis is on
Identification of information requirements Specification of generic IS functions, such as input, output and storage. Not on program writing or identifying hardware.
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Flow Diagram Entity Relationship Diagram Flow Charts Hierarchy Inputs Process Outputs Charts Organisational Charts
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Physical Design
Translation
of abstract logical model into the specific technical design for the new systems. Emphasis is on
User requirements of the system Computing requirements to features of available software Less time on designing systems. Configuration requirements for commercial packages
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Acquisition or Development
Using the specifications proposed in Logical Design hardware and software are purchased. Configuration of the same as per the system requirements. Programmers write code for parts of the system where commercial sources are not appropriate. Technical writers develop documentation and training materials. Testing is done by IS personnel and some users for bugging and comparing system performance.
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Implementation
Implementing
Direct Cutover:
The Old system is turned off, and new system is turned on Fastest and least expensive Risk factor is the maximum
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Pilot Conversion:
The new system is implemented in a subset of locations. Is like a direct cutover for pilot locations But for the whole organisation, it is like parallel conversion Both risks and costs are relatively low.
Phased Conversion:
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Operation:
After
successful conversion, the system will operate for an indefinite period of time, until
The system is no longer adequate Necessary Cost effective
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Post Audit
Post
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Maintenance
Every
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Normalization
Data
grouped in the simplest way possible so that later changes can be made with a minimum impact on data structure.
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When
too many attributes are grouped together to form entities, some attributes are found to be entities themselves.
Further normalization of these entities into attributes linked by common data elements to form relationships improves the effectiveness of DBMS.
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1st Normalization:
Isolate
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Un Normalized Table
Employee Number 211306 211306 211306 211306 301421011 301421011 419846204 419846204 419846204 612047216 Employee Name Arnold Jim Arnold Jim Arnold Jim Arnold Jim Zmud Bill Zmud Bill Belo Jack Belo Jack Belo Jack Bony Tom Store Branch Downtown Downtown Downtown Downtown Dadeland Dadeland Detroit Detroit Detroit Frog St. Department Hardware Hardware Hardware Hardware Home Appliances Home Appliances Auto Parts Auto Parts Auto Parts Mens Clothing Item Number TR100 SA10 PT65 AB165 TT14 DS104 MC164 AC148 BB100 HS101 Item Description Router Saw Drill Cutter Humidifier Dish Washer Snow Tire Alternator Battery 3 Pc Suit Sale Price $36 $10 $21 $12 $245 $262 $85 $65 $49 $215
Sales person
Sales
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First Normalization
Employee Number 211306 301421011 419846204 612047216 Employee Name Arnold Jim Zmud Bill Belo Jack Bony Tom Store Branch Downtown Dadeland Detroit Frog St. Department Hardware Home Appliances Auto Parts Mens Clothing Employee Number 211306 Item Number TR100 Item Description Router Sale Price $36
211306
211306 211306 30142101
SA10
PT65 AB165 TT14 DS104 MC164 AC148 BB100
Saw
Drill Cutter Humidifier Dish Washer Snow Tire Alternator Battery
$10
$21 $12 $245 $262 $85 $65 $49
612047216
HS101
3 Pc Suit
$215
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2nd Normal Form makes sure that each non key attribute depends on a key attribute or concatenated key.
Non key attribute that do not meet this condition are split into simpler entities
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Item File
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If there exists some relationship between the non key attributes then
they are separated into separate entities.
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Detroit
Frog St.
Auto Parts
Mens Clothing
Item File
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Transactions:
Collections
of operations that form a single logical unit of work are called transactions.
A database system must ensure proper execution of transactions despite failures either the entire transaction executes, or none of it does. It must manage concurrent execution of transactions in a way that avoids the introduction of inconsistency.
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An example:
A transfer of funds from a checking account to a savings account is a single operation when viewed from a customers standpoint; within the database however it comprises of several operations.
Clearly
this is essential that all these operations occur, or that, in case of failures, none occur.
It would not be acceptable if the checking account were debited, but the savings account were not credited.
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Transaction Concept
A
transaction is a unit of program execution that accesses and possibly updates various data.
A transaction usually results from the execution of a user program written in a high level data manipulation language or programming language.
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Properties
To
ensure integrity of the data the database system maintains the following properties:
Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability
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Atomicity
Either
all operations of the transaction are reflected properly in the database or none are.
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Consistency
Execution
of transaction in isolation (that is with no other transaction executing concurrently) preserves the consistency of the database.
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Isolation:
Even
though multiple transactions may execute concurrently, the system guarantees that
For every pair of transaction Ti and Tj it appears to Ti that either Tj finished execution before Ti started or Tj started execution after Ti finished.
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Durability
After
a transaction completes successfully, the changes it has made to the database persists even if there are system failures.
Ensuring durability is the responsibility of a component of the database system called the recovery management component.
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example
Suppose that, just prior to the execution of transaction Ti the values of Account A and B are 1000$ and 2000$ respectively. Now suppose that during the execution of transaction Ti a failure has occurred that prevented Ti from completing this execution successfully. Further, suppose that the failure happened after write(A) operation was executed, but before the write(B) operation. As the result of the failure the state of the system no longer reflects a real state of the world. Such a state is termed as inconsistent.
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Another example
The database remains in a temporary inconsistent state while the transaction to funds transfer from A to B is executing. With the deducted total written to A and the increased total yet to be written to B If a 2nd concurrently running transaction reads A and B and at this intermediate point computes A+B it will observe an inconsistent value. Further more if this inconsistent transaction performs a write operation leads the database into an inconsistent state.
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Solution:
A
solution to the problem of concurrently executing transaction is to execute them serially that is one after the other.
However concurrent execution of transactions provides significant performance benefits.
Ensuring
the isolation property is the responsibility of a component of database systems called the concurrency control component.
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Transaction State
In
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Aborted State:
To
ensure atomicity an aborted transaction must have no effect on the state of the database. Thus any changes that the aborted transaction made to the database must be undone. Once the changes caused by an aborted transaction have been undone, we say that the transaction has been rolled back.
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Committed State
A
transaction that completes its execution successfully is said to be committed. A committed transaction that has performed updates transforms the database into a new consistent state, which must persists even if there is a system failure. Once a transaction has committed we cannot undo its effects by aborting it.
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The
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Active:
The
Initial State
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Partially Committed
After
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Failed
After
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Aborted
After
the transaction has been rolled back and the database has been restored to the state prior to the start of the transaction
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Committed
After
successful completion
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Partially Committed
Committed
Active
Failed
Aborted
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transaction is said to be a committed transaction only if it has entered the committed state. transaction has aborted only if it has entered the aborted state. transaction is said to have terminated if it has either committed or aborted.
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When
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The
database system then writes out enough information to disk, when the last of this information is written out, the transaction enters the committed state.
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transaction enters the failed state after the system determines that the transaction can no longer proceed.
Such a transaction must be rolled back At this point the transaction has two options.
Restart the Transaction: Kill the Transaction
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transaction is restarted only when the transaction was aborted as a result of some hardware or software errors.
A restarted transaction is considered to be a fresh transaction.
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some internal logical error that can be corrected only by rewriting of application programs, or because the input was bad or because the desired data was not found in the database.
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Implementation Techniques
The
recovery management component of database system implements the support of atomicity and durability.
The 1st scheme assumes that only one transaction is active at a time and is based on making copies of the database called shadow copies.
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Shadow Paging
This
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If at any point the transaction has to be aborted, the new copy is merely deleted. If the transaction completes the new copy then becomes the current copy of the database. The old copy of the database is then deleted.
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Concurrency Control
When
several transactions execute concurrently, the isolation property may no longer be preserved.
It is necessary for the system to control the interaction among the concurrent transactions. This control is achieved through one of the variety of mechanisms called concurrency control schemes.
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way to ensure serializability to require that access the data items be done in a mutually exclusively manner.
While one transaction is accessing a data item, no other transaction can modify that data item. The most common method used to implement this requirement is to allow a transaction to access a data item only if it is currently holding a lock on that item.
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Locks
There
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We
require that every transaction request a lock in an appropriate mode on the data item Q, depending on the type of operation that it will perform on Q.
The request is made to the concurrency control manager.
The
transaction can proceed with the operation only after the concurrency control manager grants the lock to the transaction.
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Compatibility Function
Let
Suppose that a transaction Ti requests a lock of mode A on item Q on which transaction Tj (Ti != Tj) currently holds a lock on mode B. If transaction Ti can be granted a lock on Q immediately, in spite of the presence of the mode B lock. Then we say mode A is compactable with mode B.
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Comp matrix
S X
True
False
False
False
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transaction requests a shared lock on data item Q by executing the instruction lock-S(Q). An exclusive lock is requested through the lock-X(Q). A data item Q can be unlocked via the unlock(Q) instruction.
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Procedure
To
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Transaction
Ti may unlock a data item that it has locked at some earlier point.
But it is important that a transaction must hold a lock on a data item as long as it access that item. Moreover for a transaction to unlock a data item immediately after its final access of that data item is not always desirable, since serializability may not be ensured.
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An Illustration
T1: lock-X(B) read(B) B:=B-50 write(B) unlock(B) lock-X(A) read(A) A:=A+50 write(A) unlock(A) T2: lock-S(A) read(A) unlock(A) lock-S(B) read(B) unlock(B) display(A+B)
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lock-S(A) read(A) unlock(A) lock-S(B) read(B) unlock(B) display(A+B) lock-X(A) read(A) A:=A+50 write(A) unlock(A)
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Grant X(A,T1)
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T3:
lock-X(B) read(B) B:=B-50 write(B) lock-X(A) read(A) A:=A+50 write(A) unlock(A) unlock(B)
T4:
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T3:
T4:
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This
When deadlock occurs the system must roll back one of the two transactions. Once a transaction has been rolled back, the data items that were locked by that transaction are unlocked. These items are then available to other transactions.
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If
we use locking, or unlock data items as soon as possible after reading or writing,
We may get inconsistent results.
On
the other hand, if we do not unlock a data item before requesting a lock on another data item,
Deadlocks may occur.
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There
Deadlocks are definitely preferable to inconsistent states, since they can be handled by rolling back of transactions. Inconsistent may lead to real life problems that can not be handled by the database systems.
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Locking Protocol
Each
transaction in the system follow a set of rules, called a locking protocol, indicating when a transaction can lock and unlock data items.
Locking protocols restrict the number of possible schedules.
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Granting of Locks
When
a transaction requests a lock on a data item in a particular mode, and no other transaction has a lock on the same data item in a conflicting mode, the lock can be granted.
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But
Suppose
a transaction T2 has a shared mode lock on a data item and another transaction T1 requests an exclusive mode lock on the same data item.
Clearly T1 has to wait for T2 to release the shared mode lock.
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Meanwhile, a transaction T3 may request a shared mode lock on the same data item.
The lock request is compactable, so T3 is given the grant
But again there may be another transaction T4 that requests for a shared mode lock.
But T1 never gets the exclusive mode lock on the data item and is said to be starved.
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Thus
We
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protocol that ensures serializability is the two phase locking protocol. This protocol requires that each transaction issue lock and unlock requests in two phases.
Growing Phase Shrinking Phase
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Growing Phase
A
transaction may obtain locks, but may not release any locks.
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Shrinking Phase
A
transaction may release locks, but may not obtain any new locks.
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