Atomic Physics

Atomic Structure
All matter is made up of chemical substance of two basic kinds: Elements & Compounds Elements are chemicals that cannot be broken down into simpler chemical forms eg: hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen etc Compounds are the result of two or more elements linking together chemically eg: water Matter is composed of a mixture of elements or compounds eg: Air is a mixture of elements Nitrogen & Oxygen

 Atom : Defined as the smallest part of an element which retains chemical properties of the element. Molecule: Defined as the smallest part of a compound which retains the chemical properties of the compound. For eg: A molecule of water is formed when two hydrogen atoms & one oxygen atom combine together. But some molecules such as proteins found in living organisms are highly complex & may contain many thousands of atoms.

Atomic Models
Thomsons Atomic model: (Plum Pudding Model) He proposed a model wherein the positive charges were spread uniformly throughout a sphere, the size of the atoms, with electrons embedded in the uniform background This model could not satisfactorily explain the results of scattering experiment carried out by Rutherford who worked with Thomson. However he gave the first evidence of the existence of electrons & measured its mass & charge

Rutherfords Atomic Model

OBSERVATIONS Most of the alpha particles pass straight through the gold foil Some of the alpha particles get deflected by very small amounts. A very few get deflected greatly Even fewer get bounced of the foil and back to the left CONCLUSION The atom is 99.99% empty space. The nucleus (atoms central core) contains a positive charge and most of the mass of the atom The nucleus is approx 100,000 times smaller than the atom The electrons orbit the nucleus like a planet orbiting the sun

Defects in Rutherford model

Rutherfords atom should be highly unstable. According to the law of electro dynamics, when a charged body moves under the influence of an attractive force, it loses energy continuously in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The electron should therefore, continuously emit radiation and lose energy. As a result of this a moving electron will come closer and closer to the nucleus and after passing through a spiral path, it should ultimately fall into the nucleus. The exact position of the electron from the nucleus is not mentioned.

Bohrs Atomic Model

Bohr modified the Rutherford model by requiring that the electrons move in orbits of fixed size and energy. The energy of an electron depends on the size of the orbit and is lower for smaller orbits. Radiation can occur only when the electron jumps from one orbit to another. He applied quantum theory in considering the energy of an electron bound to the nucleus

Important Postulates of Bohr model

An atom consists of a dense nucleus situated at the centre with the electron revolving around it in circular orbits without emitting any energy. The force of attraction between the nucleus and an electron is equal to the centrifugal force of the moving electron. Of the finite number of circular orbits around the nucleus, an electron can revolve only in those orbits whose angular momentum (mvr) is an integral multiple of factor h/2 mvr = nh/2 Where, m = mass of the electron, v = velocity of the electron, n = orbit number in which electron is present (quantum number), r = radius of the orbit

 As long as an electron is revolving in an orbit it neither loses nor gains energy. Hence these orbits are called stationary states. Each stationary state is associated with a definite amount of energy and it is also known as energy levels. The different energy levels are numbered as 1,2,3,4, (from nucleus onwards) or K, L, M, N etc. Ordinarily an electron continues to move in a particular stationary state without losing energy. Such a stable state of the atom is called as ground state or normal state. If energy is supplied to an electron, it may jump (excite) instantaneously from lower energy (say 1) to higher energy level (say 2, 3, 4, etc.) by absorbing one or more quanta of energy. This new state of electron is called as excited state. The quantum of energy absorbed is equal to the difference in energies of the two concerned levels.

 Since the excited state is less stable, atom will lose its energy and come back to the ground state. Energy absorbed or released in an electron jump, ( E) is given by E = E2 E1 = hv Where E1 and E2 are the energies of the electron in the first and second energy levels, and v is the frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted, h is the plancks constant.

Bohrs Theory:
Merits
The experimental value of radii and energies in hydrogen atom are in good agreement with that calculated on the basis of Bohrs theory Bohrs concept of stationary state of electron explains the emission and absorption spectra of hydrogen like atoms. The experimental values of the spectral lines of the hydrogen spectrum are in close agreement with that calculated by Bohrs theory.

Demerits
It does not explain the spectra of atoms having more than one electron. Bohrs atomic model failed to account for the effect of magnetic field or electric field on the spectra of atoms or ions. It was observed that when the source of a spectrum is placed in a strong magnetic or electric field, each spectral line further splits into a number of lines. This observation could not be explained on the basis of Bohrs model. De Broglie suggested that electrons like light have dual character. It has particle and wave character. Bohr treated the electron only as particle. Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle. The postulate of Bohr that electrons revolve in well defined orbits around the nucleus with well defined velocities is thus not tenable.

Spectral Series of Hydrogen Atom

Sommerfelds Model
According to him, the electron in the hydrogen atom moves in an elliptical orbit around the nucleus as one focus The position of the electron can be located by the two coordinates r & Here there are two quantum conditions- one for the radial momentum & the other for the angular momentum For a particular value of n, there are n subshells in which one subshell is circular and remaining (n-1) are elliptical in shape.

The fig shows the allowed orbits for the first three energy levels

Draw backs of Bohr-Sommerfeld Model

Bohrs theory failed to explain the fine structure of spectral lines even in the simplest hydrogen atom In the case of complex atoms, Bohr-Sommerfeld theory failed to calculate the energy of the system and frequencies of radiation emitted Sommerfelds modification , though gave a theoretical background of the splitting of individual spectral lines of hydrogen, still it could not predict the correct number of observed fine structure lines Both the models couldnt explain the distribution & arrangement of electrons in atoms Both models do not throw any light on the intensities of the spectral lines Both models could not explain anomalous zeeman effect and stark effect

Vector Atom Model

Two distinct features 1. The conception of Spatial Quantisation 2. Spinning Electron Hypothesis

Summarize the present day understanding about the atomic model

 Principal Quantum No (n): Determines the main energy level or shell to which an electron belongs. Orbital Quantum No (l): Determines the shape of the orbit & the energy of the sublevel Magnetic Quantum No (ml ): Determines the possible quantised space orientation of the electrons elliptical orbit without any effect on energy levels Magnetic Spin Quantum No (ms ): Determines the electron spin about its own axis

Periodic Table

Electromagnetic Spectrum

References
Atoms,Molecules and lasers by K P R Nair Modern Physics by G.Aruldhas & P.Rajagopal Essential Physics for Radiographers by John Ball, Steve Turner, Adrrian D. Moore Material Science by S.L. Kakani & Amit Kakani Solid state Physics by S.O.Pillai