Semiconductors are a special class of

elements having a conductivity

between that of a good conductor and
that of an insulator.
They are fall into two classes : single
crystal and compound
Single crystal e.g Ge and Si
Compound e.g GaAs , CdS, GaN and
GaAsP
Ge-germanium; Si-silicon; Ga-gallium ;As arsenide; Cd-cadmium; S-
sulfide; N-nitride; P-phosphide
Semiconductor Material
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Period


1
1
H


2
He
2
3
Li
4
Be


5
B
6
C
7
N
8
O
9
F
10
Ne
3
11
Na
12
Mg


13
Al
14
Si
15
P
16
S
17
Cl
18
Ar
4
19
K
20
Ca
21
Sc
22
Ti
23
V
24
Cr
25
Mn
26
Fe
27
Co
28
Ni
29
Cu
30
Zn
31
Ga
32
Ge
33
As
34
Se
35
Br
36
Kr
5
37
Rb
38
Sr
39
Y
40
Zr
41
Nb
42
Mo
43
Tc
44
Ru
45
Rh
46
Pd
47
Ag
48
Cd
49
In
50
Sn
51
Sb
52
Te
53
I
54
Xe
6
55
Cs
56
Ba
*

72
Hf
73
Ta
74
W
75
Re
76
Os
77
Ir
78
Pt
79
Au
80
Hg
81
Tl
82
Pb
83
Bi
84
Po
85
At
86
Rn
7
87
Fr
88
Ra
**

104
Rf
105
Db
106
Sg
107
Bh
108
Hs
109
Mt
110
Ds
111
Rg
112
Uub
113
Uut
114
Uuq
115
Uup
116
Uuh
117
Uus
118
Uuo


* Lanthanides
57
La
58
Ce
59
Pr
60
Nd
61
Pm
62
Sm
63
Eu
64
Gd
65
Tb
66
Dy
67
Ho
68
Er
69
Tm
70
Yb
71
Lu
** Actinides
89
Ac
90
Th
91
Pa
92
U
93
Np
94
Pu
95
Am
96
Cm
97
Bk
98
Cf
99
Es
100
Fm
101
Md
102
No
103
Lr
Historical
Diode , in 1939 was using Ge
Transistor, in 1947 was using Ge
In1954 Si was used in Transistor because Si is
less temperature sensitive and abundantly
available.
High speed transistor was using GaAs in 1970
(which is 5 times faster compared to Si)
Si, Ge and GaAs are the semiconductor of
choice
Atomic structure
+
Valence shell (4 valence electrons)
Valence
electron
Nucleus
orbiting
electrons
Silicon
shells
+
Valence shell (4 valence electrons)
Valence
electron
orbiting
electrons
Germanium
14 orbiting electrons
(Tetravalent)
32 orbiting electrons
(tetravalent)
Atomic structure
Nucleus
shells
+
Valence shell (3 valence electrons)
Valence
electron
orbiting
electrons
Gallium
Nucleus
shells
+
Valence shell (5 valence electrons)
Valence
electron
orbiting
electrons
Arsenic
31 orbiting electrons
(trivalent)
33 orbiting electrons
(pentavalent)
ENERGY LEVELS
Each and every isolated electron has
a specific energy level associated with
shell and orbiting electron.
The farther an electron from the
nucleus, the higher is the energy
state.
Electron left its parent atom has a
higher energy state than any electron
in the atomic structure.
Band Theory

Analogy to atoms
From chemistry, we are familiar with the idea of
electron clouds orbiting the nucleus.
The energy of the different clouds, or levels, is
discrete. Adding energy can cause an electron to jump
into a higher level. In the same way, an electron can
lose energy and emit a specific wavelength of light
when falling to a lower energy level. (Atomic spectra)
Pauli Exclusion Principle: no two electrons can occupy
the same exact state at the same time. This is why
electrons fill the energy levels in the way they do.
Valence electrons are the electrons bound farthest
from the nucleus


Covalent bonding
This bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of electrons, is
called covalent bonding
Covalent bonding of Si crystal
Covalent bonding of GaAs
crystal
Exercise 1
Name the materials that suitable for
electronic devices
What are the advantages and
disadvantages of each materials?
What is a covalent bonding? Describe
it.
Free state
Energy from external natural cause the
valence electrons to absorb sufficient
kinetic energy and break the covalent
bond. This is assume to be free state.
Electron that has separated from the fixed
lattice structure is called free carriers.
At room temperature, approximately 1.5X
10
10
free carriers in 1 cm
3
of intrinsic silicon
material
*intrinsic means material has been refined to
a very low level of impurities.
Table: Intrinsic carriers
Semiconductor Intrinsic carriers/cm
3
GaAs 1.7 X 10
6
Si 1.5 X 10
10
Ge 2.5 X 10
13
Relative mobility
n
Relative mobility is the ability of free
carriers to move throughout the material.

Semiconductor
n
(cm
2
/V-s)
Si 1500
Ge 3900
GaAs 8500
Effect on temperature
Conductor increase resistance with
increase in heat ( number of carrier
do not increase)- is said to have a
positive temperature coefficient.
Semiconductor- increase conductivity
with increase in heat ( number of
carrier increase)- is said to have a
negative temperature coefficient.
Band Theory
What is a crystalline solid?
A volume of atoms covalently bonded in a
periodic structure with well defined symmetries.
Example: Silicon
Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) structure
Group-IV elements (4 valence electrons)
Where are the electrons?
Covalent bonds share electrons. The e-are
delocalized, they can move around the crystal,
orbit any atom, as long as there is an open state
(cannot violate Pauli Exclusion)
This forms discrete energy bands. Solving
Schroedingers Equation in the specific periodic
structure reveals these bands.



In an atom, electrons orbit in their shell, at a given
energy.
In a crystal, many electrons occupy a small energy
band. There is a width to the energy band, which is
why Pauli Exclusion is not violated.
Within the band, electrons can move easily if there
are available states, because the difference in energy
is tiny.
Between bands, electrons must get energy from
another source, because the band gap can be
significant.


Specifics of Crystals

Fermi Energy


The highest energy an electron reached if you were to
fill the solid with the intrinsic number of electrons at
absolute zero. (No added thermal energy)
Meaningful! There is a sea of electrons sitting
beneath this energy.
If you bring two solids together with different Fermi
energies, the electrons will move around to reach an
equilibrium. (Foreshadowing: PN junction)
If you try to put a lower energy electron into a solid
(at absolute zero) with a higher Fermi energy, it wont
fit. It cannot be done due to Pauli Exclusion.
If the highest energy electron exactly fills a band,
the Fermi Energy is near the center of the bands.


The level of a single
quantum number n and
the energies are given as
2
2
2 2
2
n
mL
h
E
n
t
=
Fermi Energy
( )
2
2
2 2
2 /
2
N
mL
h
E
f
t
=
Fermi energy for N particles and the spin is half , thus
h=planks constant; n =quantum no. , m mass ;
L =side length
Fermi level in three dimension
3 / 1
3
|
.
|

\
|
=
t
N
n
f
3 / 2
2 2
3
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
V
N
m
h
E
f
t
3 / 2
2
2 2
2
2
2 2
3
2 2
|
.
|

\
|
= =
t
t t N
mL
h
n
mL
h
E
f f
3
3
4
8
1
2
f
n N t =
2
2
2 2
2
n
mL
h
E
n

t
=
Where is a vector quantum state
n

Number of fermions is given by

Therefore
Then the Fermi energy is given by
By replacing L
2
with V
2/3
V=volume
Typical Fermi Energy of Nucleus
( )
3 / 1 15
10 25 . 1 A m R =

( )
MeV 30 eV 10 30
1
10 6 3
2
6
3 / 2
3
43 2 2
= ~
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
m
m
h
E
p
f
t
3 44
3
10 2 . 1
3
4

~ = m
R
A
n
t
A is a nucleons (proton and neutron)
Number density of nucleons in nucleus is
Fermi Energy of a Nucleus

Beyond 0 K: Fermi-Dirac Statistics

Fermi Energy: The energy
state whose probability of being
occupied is exactly 1/2 .
Electrons obey Fermi-Dirac-
statistics, which describe the
probability of an electron being
present in an allowed energy
state.
Note that if there are no states
at a given energy (i.e., in the
band gap) there will be no
electrons, even if there is finite
probability.

( )
kT
E E
F
e
E f

+
=
1
1
Fermi function
k=Boltzmanns constant, T=temp, E =energy , E
f
=Fermi energy

Different Types of Solids

Fermi level falls
between bands,
with a large band
gap. SiO2: 9 eV.

>5eV
Fermi level falls
between bands,
with a small band
gap.Si: 1.11 eV,
Ge:0.67 eV, GaAs:
1.43
Fermi level falls
inside the energy
band. Easy for
electrons to move
around
Fermi level

Transport in Semiconductors


Electrons that get excited into the conduction band carry current.
The space left behind in the valence band is called a hole.
Holes also conduct current. In reality, its the movement of all
the other electrons. The hole allows this motion. (Bubbles)
Holes can easily travel up in energy.
Holes have positive charge.
Current flows in the same direction as the holes move.
Holes have different mass (effective mass) and mobility
compared to electrons.


Intrinsic Semiconductor


Fermi Level: All solids are characterized by an energy that
describes the highest energy electron at 0K, the level which
has1/2 probability of being occupied at finite temperature.
Semiconductors: A solid with its Fermi level exactly between
bands, with a band gap small enough to be overcome at room
temperature.
Both electrons and holes carry current.

Silicon bond model: electrons
and holes
Si is in Column IV of periodic table:
Electronic structure of Si atom:
10 core electrons (tightly bound)
4 valence electrons (loosely bound, responsible for
most
chemical properties)
Other semiconductors:
Ge, C (diamond form), SiGe
GaAs, InP, InGaAs, InGaAsP, ZnSe, CdTe
(on average, 4 valence electrons per atom)
Silicon crystal structure

Silicon is a crystalline material:
long range atomic arrangement
Diamond lattice:
atoms tetrahedrally bonded by
sharing valence electrons
(covalent bonding)
Each atom shares 8 electrons:
low energy and stable situation
Si atomic density: 5 1022 cm3

Controlling the properties of a
Semiconductor

Silicon: 4 valence electrons.
Each Si atom bonds to four
others.
Doping
Replace some Si atoms with
atoms that do not have four
valence electrons.
These atoms will have an
extra electron (group IV), or
an extra hole (group III).
Doping increases the
number of carriers and
changes the Fermi level.

Extrinsic materials
A semiconductor material that has
been subjected to the doping process
is called an extrinsic material.
Type of materials
n-type
p-type

Phosphorus Doping (n-type)


Phosphorus has 5 valence electrons.
P atoms will sit in the location of a Si atom in the
lattice, to avoid breaking symmetry, but each will
have an extra electron that does not bond in the same
way.
These electrons form their own band. Exactly where
depends on the amounts of the two materials.
This new band is located closer to the conduction
band, because these extra electrons are easier to
excite (and can move around more easily)


Eg. Of n-type material doping
Doping with Sb
Sb - antimony
One electron loosely bound and
freely to move in the crystal
structure. The atoms (in this
case is antimony (Sb)) with five
valence electrons are called the
donor atoms. Similarly with
Phosphorus (P) which also a
donor.

Boron Doping (p-type)


Boron has 3 valence electrons.
B will sit at a lattice site, but the adjacent
Si atoms lack an electron to fill its shell.
This creates a hole.
These holes form their own energy band.
This band is located closer to the valence
band, because these extra holes are easy
to excite down into the valence band.


Eg of p-type material
Boron (B)
In this case, an insufficient
number of electrons to
complete the covalent bonds.
The impurities with three
valence electrons are called
acceptor atoms. E.g of
materials are Gallium (Ga),
Indium (In)
Void is called hole

Doping

Doping involves in adding dopant atoms to
an intrinsic semiconductor.
n-type materials: Doping Si with a Group V
element, providing extra electrons (n for
negative) and moving the Fermi level up.
p-type materials: Doping Si with a Group
III element, providing extra holes (p for
positive) and moving the Fermi level down.


Dopant
Group V (n-type) usually
antimony(Sb), arsenic(A),
phosphorus(P)
Group III (p-type)-usually Boron(B) ,
Gallium (Ga) and Indium (In)
Electron versus hole flow
The valence electron
acquires sufficient kinetic
energy to break its
covalent bond and fills the
void created by hole
When the electron move
to fill the hole therefore a
transfer of holes to the left
and electrons to the right
This flow is known as
conventional flow.
Majority and Minority Carriers
N-type material, the electron is called majority carrier and hole the minority
carrier
P-type material, the hole is called majority carrier and electron the minority
carrier.

Equilibrium Concentrations:
electrons
states of density effective
* 2
2
2 / 3
2
= |
.
|

\
|
=
h
kT m
N
n
C
t
n
o
=equilibrium electron carrier concentration

N(E)=density of states
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) kT E E
C
kT E E
C
C C
E
o
F C
F C
e N
e
N
E f N dE E N E f n
C
/
/
1

~
+
= = =
}
f(E) =fermi function k=Boltzmanns const.
Equilibrium Concentrations: holes
states of density effective
* 2
2
2 / 3
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
h
kT m
N
p
t
u
p
o
=equilibrium hole carrier concentration

N(E)=density of states
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) kT E E
kT E E
C
E
o
F
F
e N
e
N
E f N dE E N E f p
/
/
1
1 1
u
u
u
u
u
u

~
+
= = =
}
f(E) =fermi function k=Boltzmanns const.

Intrinsic Semiconductors

In intrinsic semiconductors (no doping) the electron and hole
concentrations are equal because carriers are created in pairs
( ) ( ) kT E E
i
kT E E
C i
i F C
e N p e N n
/ /
u
u

= = =
( ) ( )
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
kT E E kT E E
C o o
F F C
e N e N p n
/ /
u
u
( ) kT E E
i o
F i
e n p
/
=
( ) kT E E
i o
i F
e n n
/
=
( )
2
/ /
i i i
kT E
C
kT E E
C
n p n e N N e N N
g
C
= = = =

u u
u
This allows us to write
As the Fermi level moves closer to the conduction
[valence] band, the n
0
[p
0
] increases exponentially
n
i
=no. of electrons (intrinsic) p
i
= no. of holes (intrinsic)

Temperature Dependence of
Carrier Concentrations
3 10
/ 10 5 . 1 cm n
i
=
The intrinsic concentration depends
exponentially on temperature. The
T3dependence is negligible.
Ionization: only a few donors
[acceptors] are ionized.
Extrinsic: All donors [acceptors] are
ionized
Intrinsic: As the temperature increases
past the point where it is high enough
to excite carriers across the full band
gap, intrinsic carriers eventually
contribute more.
At room temp (300K), the intrinsic
carrier concentration of silicon is:
( )
( ) kT E E kT E
p n o
i F
g
e e m m
h
kT
n
/ 2 /
4 / 3
2 / 3
2
* *
2
2

(
(

|
.
|

\
|
=
t

Moving Carriers (i.e., current)


There are two mechanisms by which mobile carriers
move in semiconductors resulting in current flow
Drift
Carrier movement is induced by a force of some
type
Diffusion
Carriers move (diffuse) from a place of higher
concentration to a place of lower concentration



Drude Model of Conductivity





The current is the charge*number of electrons*area*velocity in a unit
of time. For j = current density, divide by the area. The drift velocity
(v
d
) is a function of charge mobility (
n
) and electric field (E).
At equilibrium, there is no net motion of charge, v
avg
= 0.
With an applied electric field, there is a net drift of electrons [holes]
against [with] the electric field resulting in an average velocity.
This model allows us to apply Newtons equations, but with an
effective mass. The effective mass takes the interactions with the rest
of the solid into account.

Electrons are assumed to move in a direct path, free of interactions
with the lattice or other electrons, until it collides.
This collision abruptly alters its velocity and momentum.
The probability of a collision occurring in time dtis simply dt/t,
where t is the mean free time. t is the average amount of time it
takes for an electron to collide.
c u
u n g a
qn qn J = =

DrudeModel

at
o
+ =u u ma qE F = =
m
qE
a =
E m
qt
g au
u
= =
*
( )E p n q J
p n
+ =
E
m
nq
E J
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
*
2
t
o
o qn =
* m
qE
g a
t
u
u =
*
2
m
nq t
o =

Consider an electron just after a collision. The velocity it acquires
before the next collision will be acceleration*time
We want the average velocity of all the electrons, which can be
obtained by simply averaging the time, which we already know is t
We can also write this in terms of mobility:

Taking both holes and electrons into account, we end up with the
following formula for current density due to drift.

Hall Effect

( ) B q F + = u c
qn
B J
E
z x
y
=
Moving electrons experience a force
due to a perpendicular B field
y resistivit =

qn
1
=
An electric field develops in response
to this force.
The sign of this field perpendicular
to the flow of current determines the
carrier type.
Density and mobility can also be
calculated.

Diffusion





Diffusion results in a net flux of particles from the region of higher
concentration to the region of lower concentration
This flux leads to current (movement of charged particles)
Magnitude of current depends on the gradient of concentration
dx
x dn
qD x J
n n
) (
) (
diffusion ,
=
q
kT
D
D
p
p
n
n
= =

D
n
is the diffusivity coefficient

Diffusivity is related to mobility by Einsteins relationship

Typical values for Si at room temp
D
n
= 34 cm
2
/s and D
p
= 13 cm
2
/s